Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Introduction

    Work is a huge part of life. The average person will spend most of their time working or sleeping. Since it is such a integral part of life, work has an obvious impact on a person's personality and behavior. I/O psychologists are interested in documenting this impact and much more. I/O psychology covers many different topics including but not limited to work, fatigue, personnel selection, evaluation of programs, consumer surveys, small group processes, and pay and efficiency. [1] Since many workplaces are concerned about the performance and relationships of their employees, I/O psychologists will work in a number of environments such as hospitals, government institutions, universities, public service agencies, and businesses. The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) had around 6,000 members as of 2007. [2] One criticism of I/O psychology is that it is not always heavily regulated.

Scientist-Practitioner Model

    I/O psychologists rely on scientific research to support their methods and practice. To make sure that they conduct scientifically sound results, I/O psychologists are taught the scientist-practitioner model. The scientist-practitioner model teaches both scientific inquiry and practical application. The model has the following components[3]:

• psychologists should be trained and skilled in the conduct and application of psychological research
• science provides the basis for practice so that the knowledge and techniques that are used to solve practical problems are rooted firmly in the foundations of science
• practice contributes to science by identifying problems that need to be solved and providing testing ground for the products of scientific research

The model's main purpose is to discourage practice that has no scientific basis and research that does not have a clear connection to the practice.

I/O Psychology Fields

    I/O psychology can be divided into six different fields. [2] Some psychologists practice just one of these I/O fields, or they will branch out and do many. No matter what, though, each field is distinct and equally important to the entire science.

• Selection and Placement

    One of the most important jobs of an I/O psychologist is to help a business or organization select the most qualified/well-suited people for the various positions that are offered by the company. This process takes time and requires that the psychologist predict the future needs of the organization, establish objectives, and implement programs that ensure that the best people possible will be available when needed. [4] To find people who will enjoy their job, mesh well with the company, and be productive, I/O psychologists use learning and motivational theories to test or analyze a person's personality and knowledge. Standardized cognitive tests and other psychological tests are administered to the prospective employee. By using these systems, or selection procedures, psychologists help companies choose employees that will jive well.
    I/O psychologists focused in selection and placement will also help decide where an employee should be placed within a company based on their personality or knowledge. They can also play a part in whether or not employees are promoted.

• Training and Development

    For an employee to be successful and a valuable asset to the company, they need to know what they are doing. I/O psychologists in this field focus on identifying weaknesses in employees and seeing that those employees gain the skills they need to improve job performance. Training includes technical skills enhancement and managerial development programs, among other things. It is also their responsibility to decide which training and development programs work best.

• Performance Appraisal

    I/O psychologists in this field develop criteria and standards for judging employee's job performance. They decide whether or not the job performance of an employee is contributing to the organization, and by how much. They can also measure the performance of entire teams or units within the organization, as well as the organization as a whole. Performance appraisals are important because they help organizations determine how much to pay their employees. [5]

• Organization Development

    These psychologists analyze organization structure to determine the productivity and happiness of its employees and customers. They determine how the organization could change or grow in order to thrive, and then help to make those changes happen.

• Quality of Worklife

    This field involves figuring out the factors that help contribute to a productive organization. [6] This can involve changing aspects of the physical work environment or changing the requirements of a job so that employees are happier. If employees are happier than productivity increases and the entire organization benefits.

• Ergonomics/Human Factors
  

    I/O psychologists are included in the field of ergonomics (also called human factors), which is interested in the design of tools, equipment, and machines that are intuitively compatible with humans. [7] Designs in ergonomics relies on knowledge from such fields as medicine and physiology. I/O psychologists focused on ergonomics will often work with engineers and designers to see that certain features are implemented into the final design of a product.

Incentive (Motivation) Theories

    A key concept in the field of industrial/organizational psychology is the idea that employees work mainly for rewards or incentives. People are usually motivated to do their job because of the compensation or benefits they receive. By designing pay systems that include legal compliance, labor cost control, perceived fairness toward employees, and the enhancement of employee performance, organizations are able to reach high levels of productivity and customer satisfaction. [8] The way these systems are designed is often times derived from theories of motivation.

• Equity Theory

    People like to believe that they are being treated fairly by their employer. An employee will therefore compare wages and job requirements with his or her coworker's to see if they are being adequately compensated for their work. If things seem unbalanced and someone makes more money for doing less work then equity is not achieved and the employee feels as though they're being cheated. Tensions will arise in such situations and the productivity level of the employee will most likely decline.

• Expectancy (VIE) Theory

    Expectancy theory relies on the idea that one's motivation to put effort into their job is directly related to the expectation of reward or outcome for doing that job. If a person believes they are capable of doing a job and that completion of the job will bring a desirable award then they will be more likely to put full effort into that job.

• Goal-setting Theory

    This theory suggests that specific goals, when accompanied by feedback on a person's performance, will cause that person to perform better. The goal should be clear, challenging, and achievable. [9] Such goals will help motivate the employee by focusing their attention, increasing their effort, and strengthening their persistence toward task accomplishment.

• Agency Theory

    Agency theory connects a principal with an agent. The principal is the person who tells others what work to do and the agent is the person who carries out the work. [10] The theory states that efficiency in the workplace is correlated with the relationship health of principal and agent.

Job Analysis

    I/O psychologists sometimes have to evaluate how well a person is performing their job. There are a number of ways for such evaluations to be performed. First of all psychologists must have a set of criteria with which they can judge employees. A popular set of criteria or attributes is called competency modeling. [11] Common competencies sought in employees are:

• showing the highest level of professional integrity at all times
• staying current with the latest technological advances
• placing the success of the organization about personal success
• being sensitive and respectful of the dignity of all employees

These competencies are applicable to most jobs, but not all. Some employers will create their own list of competencies, called a KSAO. Each job position can have its own KSAO since different things are expected from different employees.

• Major Criteria

    There are nine major job performance criteria used by psychologists when analyzing jobs: production, sales, tenure or turnover, absenteeism, accidents, theft, counterproductive workplace behavior, emotional labor, and person-organization fit. [2]

Conclusion

    Industrial/organizational psychologists are extremely helpful professionals that analyze the relationship between humans and the jobs they perform. Since much of life is working, I/O psychology is perhaps one of the most important fields. The tests performed on and for employees and the organization are helpful for everyone involved. By motivating and evaluating workers and working conditions, organizations are able to thrive. The practices performed by psychologists help keep productivity and morale in the workplace high and that is highly valuable in a world that is fueled mostly by competitive business.