[Nairobi: 8 April, 2005]
[First Version: 25/9/3003. Previous Updates: 7/10/2003, 28/10/2003, 8/11/2003, 28/1/2004, 27/4/2004]
These sources and annotations [for the main training techniques, “tools” and models] are a companion to the handout on Class Presentation. That handout only lists topic clusters to be covered by respective teams of students, and indicates the dates when they are to be presented. Though the combined Course Outline and Reading List serves as the basic document for CSO 589, it is necessary to issue this more focused document – primarily because of the scattered and often very sketchy way in which many of the presentation topics are treated in the available literature. The Reading List does not quite capture that scatter; and it has gaps which this document helps to fill.
Topics in the respective clusters that you find in this document, and the other handout, are not necessarily or entirely generic in the sense of belonging to the same classifications. They are often purposively bundled here for logistical purposes. We are really not trying to violate the axiom in the Theory of Logical Types that “a class of classes cannot be one of the classes which are its members” (Bateson, 1972: 280). Some clusters in this document are more elaborate than those which respective teams will volunteer to present on, and there is more cross-referencing here. Clusters 18 to 20 do not appear in the other handout, but will be useful. For presentation purposes, however, you will stick to topics in the earlier handout. Use the present document specifically to identify more quickly the sources and pages relevant to your topics. However, it is far from exhaustive, and was not intended to be. Rather treat it as a catalyst for your library research. Your challenge is to access these sources and go beyond them to see what else you can get on your own, to share with others.
II. SELECTED SOURCES FOR SPECIFIC TECHNIQUES
II.1. Apprenticeship, Shadowing, On-the-Job Experience/Training, Learning-By-Doing; Attachment/Placement; Induction, Ice Breakers and Orientation.
Apprenticeship (Bernardin, 2003: 177; Noe, 2002: 222-4; Dessler, 2000: 259; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 327; Nzuve, 1997: 72; ILO, 1991: 29-32; Flippo, 1984: 201; Steinmetz, 1976: 1.4; Walsh and Waites, 1976: 6.3-6.4; Saltzman, Maly and Hartshorn, 1976: 25.7); Shadowing (Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 96); On-the-Job Experience/Training or In-Company, On-the-Job Training or Job Experiences (Bernardin, 2003: 176-7 says that about 90% of all industrial training is OJT, and that the most common examples of OJT are apprenticeship and job rotation; Agochiya, 2002: 43-5; Cole, 2002: 384; Noe, 2002: 297-300; Armstrong, 1999: 519-29; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95) or Learning-By-Doing or “Learning Through Doing” (Senge, 1994: 313-25 on microworlds as ‘practice fields’ for management teams, and as a technology for “firsthand experience” – for rediscovering “the power of learning through play” or “the child learner within us”); Attachment/Placement (Agochiya, 2002: 215-7); Induction (Armstrong, 1999: 405-12; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95) [Ice Breakers (Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95), Orientation (Bernardin, 2003: 185-6 sees this as an example of special training programmes, other examples being: team training, IT training, diversity awareness training, sexual harassment training, creativity training and international assignments training; Noe, 2002: 399-401; Dessler, 2000: 249-50; Nzuve, 1997: 70; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95)].
II.2. Demonstration, Coaching, Mentoring, “Work-with” Training, JIT, PEDOS, Vestibule Training, Job/Position Rotation, Cross-Training, Secondment, Understudy, Action Learning, Externship, Job Enlargement, Job Enrichment, Job Compression.
Demonstration (Agochiya, 2002: 219-20; Armstrong, 1999: 837-8, 841; Rebedeau and Tagliere, 1976: 26.16; Saville, 1965: 61-72); Coaching1 (Bernardin, 2003: 206 on executive coaching; Noe, 2002: 307-8; Hunt and Weintraub, 2002: 1-71 especially; Cole, 2002: 355 and 384-6; Dessler, 2000: 257, 273 calls it, alternatively, the “understudy approach”; Armstrong, 1999: 838; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 302; Hammer, 1998: 83-6, 106, 111-30, 142-7; Cole, 1997: 295; Cole, 1995: 273; Flippo, 1984: 211; Senge, et al, 1994: 65, 74, 196-7, 201-7; Smith, 1970: 148-151) [or “Work-with” Training or Job Instruction Training (JIT) or PEDOS2 (Rebedeau and Tagliere, 1976: 26.15-26.18; also see Dessler, 2000: 259-60 who describes JIT as a logically sequenced “step-by-step process”; Waweru, 1984: 58-9); see Nzuve, 1997: 72 for Vestibule Training, an off-the-job variant of Job Instruction; and Dessler, 2000: 263-4 to whom it is synonymous with “simulated training”]; Mentoring (Noe, 2002: 304-307 also touches on group mentoring, whereby an experienced senior staff and ‘four to six’ less experienced staff constitute a group in which the ‘proteges’ learn from the mentor as well as each other; Hunt and Weintraub, 2002: 9-10 on coaching v. mentoring; Cole, 2002: 386; Armstrong, 1999: 838-9; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 303; Cole, 1997: 321; Mumford, 1987: 207-8); Job/Position Rotation (Bernardin, 2003: 177; Hunt and Weintraub, 2002: 227-8; Noe, 2002: 300-3; Dessler, 2000: 272-3; Armstrong, 1999: 839 who prefers to call it “planned sequence of experience”; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 74; Cole, 1997: 295; Cole, 1995: 284; Luthans, 1992: 182-3; Flippo, 1984: 212; Hodgetts, 1983: 222-3; Smith, 1970: 152-3) [or Temporary Assignment or Secondment (Cole, 2002: 355, 359 and 387; Noe, 2002: 303) or Understudy or Action Learning (Graham & Bennett, 1998: 308-9; see also Dessler, 2000: 273-4; Armstrong, 1999: 839-40)]; or Cross-Training (Noe, 2002: 22, 453)3; or Externship (Noe, 2002: 303); Job Enrichment (Vertical Extension, or ‘Vertical Compression’ according to Hammer and Champy, 1994: 53; Luthans, 1992: 182-4) and Job Enlargement (Horizontal Extension, or ‘Horizontal Compression’ according to Hammer and Champy, 1994: 53; see also Cole, 2002: 113-3, 453-4; Noe, 2002: 299-300; Burnes, 2000: 69; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 73-4 see Job Enrichment and Job Enlargement as examples of Job Extension; Cole, 1997: 90-93, 375; Arnold, Robertson and Cooper, 1996: 308; Cole, 1995: 284-5; Luthans, 1992: 182-3; Hodgetts, 1983: 223-4) [To Hammer and Champy (1994: 51-4, 230), the Job Compression (or job integration/consolidation) that eventuates from business process reengineering4 is a customer-oriented, logically sequenced (or ‘end-to-end’) – not necessarily linear – process which creates a new kind of employee (the case worker) and/or a new kind of work group (the case team)].
II.3. Feedback, Biofeedback, Feedforward
Feedback5 (Russell and Norvig, 2003: 525; Yambo, 2005; Hunt and Weintraub, 2002: 59-60, 139-56; Noe, 2002: 82, 89, 117, 119-20, 128, 131, 293-7 includes 360-degree feedback and upward feedback6; Harry, 2001: 93-101; Teshnehlab and Watanabe, 1999: 34-7, 51-2, 173,175-83; Yaniv, 1999: 15-69, 101, 343-4 concept of closed loop defined on pp 15-6; Armstrong, 1999: 238, 449, 490-91 which also touches on the related concepts of cybernetics and “cybernetic” or feedback learning, see also pp. 108-9 for homeostasis and open systems, pp. 465-73 for 360-degree feedback – or “multi-source assessment” or “multi-rater feedback”7 – p. 466 for upward feedback, and p. 850 for the role of feedback in interactive skills training; White, 1995: 13-14, 16; Benson, Mattson and Adler, 1995: 55-66; Hammer and Stanton, 1995: 200; D’Souza, 1994: 124, 130, 161-8; Senge, 1994: 58-60, 68, 73-92, 378-9; Senge, et al, 1994: 113-20, 282-3; Luthans, 1992: 151-2, 182-8, 196, 219-20, 477-9 on the importance of feedback in motivation, goal setting, performance reinforcement8 and interpersonal communication within organizations; Beam, 1990: 112-3; OECD, 1988: 21-2 and 42; McGraw-Hill, 1987: 32-3 has F.G. Shinskey’s definitions of feedback circuit, positive feedback and negative feedback, and a block diagram of feedback circuit; Green, 1986: 174-82 on feedback filters and autonomous feedback sequential circuits; Kaplinsky, 1984: 19-20, 23; Rebedeau and Tagliere, 1976: 26.13; Lawler, 1973: 160-2 and 170-1 on the centrality of feedback from the job to employees’ intrinsic motivation, higher-order-need satisfaction and performance; Bateson, 1972: 399-410 on the invariable negativity of the cybernetic explanation9, according to which restraints govern the trajectories of all events, as opposed to the positivity of the causal explanation; Ogburn and Nimkoff, 1970: 27-48; Buckingham, 1970: 126-36; Shils, 1970: 137-52; Dubin, 1970: 152-61; von Bertalanffy, 1969: 83-4; Katz and Kahn, 1969: 86-104; Ashby, 1969: 105-24; Kremyanskiy, 1969: 134-5; Sommerhoff, 1969: 181-4, 196-9, 201; Nagel, 1969: 297-329; Koestler, 1967: 97-103, 207-8, 345-6; Beer, 1967: 28-38; Shinskey, 1967: 4-6, 103-112, 118, 219-22; see also Bray, 1976: 16.10 on Feedback as a necessary component of the management assessment process).
Biofeedback (Luthans, 1992: 92-3 on the wide-ranging medical and therapeutic implications of biofeedback training, BFT, which means training in the conscious use of the signals, relayed by an electronic monitor, emanating from some ‘involuntary’ process in the human body – such as brain-waves, skin temperature, blood pressure or heartbeat – to control that same process and therefore deal with such medical problems as migraine headaches, cerebral palsy, irregular heart rhythms and hyperventilation).
Feedforward (Russell and Norvig, 2003: 738-44; Yambo, 2005; Harry, 2001: 97; Teshnehlab and Watanabe, 1999: 25-31, 49-50, 112, 171-2, 174-5, 199-202, 228 concept of open loop defined and discussed on pp. 15-35; Bissel, 1995: 220-1, 250-1 has one of the clearest explanations of feedforward that I have come across; White, 1995: 7, 12-3, 51-3; Beam, 1990: 113 refers in passing to the need sometimes to carry out ‘open-loop’ testing, verification and correction before ‘closing the loop’ and thereby establishing stability-maintaining feedback; but also implies that “merely...reversing the sense of feedback” in a linear system could cause instability and have open-loop, i.e. feedforward, effects; McGraw-Hill, 1987 :34 has a good definition and block diagram of feedforward control system from F.G. Shinskey; Green, 1986: 165-8 on feedforward linear filters; Rebedeau and Tagliere, 1976: 26.12-26.13 gives the following as examples of feedforward: lectures, films, manuals, textbooks, product specifications and newsletters; also “product training” and many forms of HR training, such as sales, supervisory and management training; Shinskey, 1967: 204-20, 227-8, 314-19)10.
II.4. Assignments, Delegation, Projects; Guided/Selective Reading, Guided Experience, Programmed Instruction/Learning.
Assignments (Agochiya, 2002: 198-9; Noe, 2002: 303; Armstrong, 1999: 842; Cole, 1997: 322; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95); Delegation11 (Cole, 2002: 387; Cole, 1997: 322; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95???; D’Souza, 1994: 473-85; Roberts, 1990: 72-5; Turla and Hawkins, 1987: 137-44). Projects (Cole, 2002: 357, 359 and 387; Armstrong, 1999: 524, 842; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 308 views projects as “special assignments”; Cole, 1997: 322; Coventry and Burstiner, 1977: 378 on “in-company” projects), Guided/Selective Reading (Armstrong, 1999: 842; Flippo, 1984: 215); Guided Experience (Cole, 2002: 359); Programmed Instruction/ Learning (Cole, 2002: 355; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 305; Cole, 1997: 294; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95; Waweru, 1984: 59-60; Brethower, 1976: 39.1-39.23).
II.5. Use of CAT, CBT, CAI, CMI, E-Learning or Online Learning in Training; Multimedia Training, Audio-Visual Methods/Techniques, Distance Learning, Equipment Simulation.
Use of Computer-Applications in Training [or Computer-Based Training (CBT), including virtual reality, or Computer-Assisted/Aided Instruction (CAI) or Computer-Managed Instruction (CMI) (Bernardin, 2003: 177-8; Noe, 2002: 252-64 on CBT; Armstrong, 1999: 843-4; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 306; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 100; Benson, Mattson and Adler, 1995: 63; Hickey, 976: 41.1-41.19) or E-Learning or Online Learning (Noe, 2002: 257-79) or Multimedia Training (Noe, 2002: 250-2 on multimedia training as training which combines audiovisual and computer-based methods; Armstrong, 1999: 845)].
Audio-Visual Methods/Technologies (Bernardin, 2003: 175-6; Agochiya, 2002: 209-12; Noe, 2002: 217, 45112; Dessler, 2000: 262-3 includes here films, audiotapes, videotapes teletraining via TV ‘hookups’ and videoconferencing; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95; O’Sullivan, 1976: 43.1-43.23; Telecentre, 1974: 1-53; Kapost, 1970:181-205) [include use of Video (Armstrong, 1999: 844), Interactive Video (Noe, 2002: 217-8 and 254; Armstrong, 1999: 844; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 306), or CCTV, i.e., Closed-Circuit Television (Arnold, Robertson and Cooper, 1996: 254; also see Dessler, 2000: 262 on teletraining)]; training via CD-ROM, DVD, Laser Disc, the Internet and the Web (Noe, 2002: 253-64; Dessler, 2000: 264-5); Visual Aids not directly related to CAT, CBT, CAI or CMI include: blackboard/chalkboard, posters, flannelgraph, magnetboard, photographs, slides, and film strips (Saville, 1965: 76-81).
Distance Learning (Bernardin, 2003: 178; Noe, 2002: 266-7); Equipment Simulation (Bernardin, 2003: 178-9 common examples are driving and flight simulators, another is Fire Arms Training System or FATS).
II.6. Team Learning, Team Building/Development, Encounter Groups, T-Group Training, Laboratory Training, Team Training, Team Work, Virtual Teams, Group Building Methods, Group Methods
Team13 Learning (Senge, 1994: 9-10, 233-269; Senge, et al, 1994: 435-440 on executive team learning) [or Team Development (Flippo, 1984: 220)], T-group Training (Armstrong, 1999: 216, 849; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 295; Hodgetts, 1983: 91-3 mentions Encounter Groups of which the T-group is “the most popular form,” other forms being personal growth labs, marathon groups, interpersonal effectiveness labs and Esalen groups; Coventry and Burstiner, 1977: 376 mention “the so-called T group, also referred to as ‘sensitivity training,’” and describe it as “this unstructured psychological technique” conducted by a trained instructor who serves largely as a catalyst to a management/leadership training group, typically of “up to a dozen” people, kept together continuously for “over a period of time”so that they may begin “to see themselves as others see them”; see also Maleche, 1976: 137-40; Egan, 1971: 3-9 on the encounter group, whose overall goal is “interpersonal growth” and whose more immediate goal is to “experiment with ‘new’ (for you) and perhaps more growthful ways of relating to others” (p. 3); Rogers, 1971: 15-38 on the basic encounter group, as “the intensive group experience,” and its synonyms such as T-group14 or laboratory group or “sensitivity training in human relationships” p. 16; Yalov, 1971: 39-55 on T-group and Therapy group interfaces)
[or Interactive Skills Training (Armstrong, 1999: 849-50) or Laboratory Training (Agochiya, 2002: 191-8; Maleche, 1976: 134-49; Rush, 1976: 8.7; Dupre, 1976: 37.1-37.15; Bennis, 1971: 113-9; Egan, 1971: 2; Smith, 1970: 160) or Team Building (Cole, 2002: 389; Armstrong, 1999: 219-20, 22915, see also 152-4; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95-6; Cole, 1995: 272 sees some similarity between it and “process consultation” about which also see Armstrong, 2000: 156; Senge, 1994: 314 on the strength and limitation of team-building exercises and on the microworld solution; Senge et al, 1994: 355-7 insist that Team Learning is not ‘Team Building’; Galbraith, 1973: 50-3 has some discussion on the utility of task forces and teams in organizational operations and envisages the design and use of “an entire hierarchy of teams”, 67-88 a case study of a manufacturing company’s shift from a functional organizational design to a team design, 134-7 a case study of the dynamics of introducing/making the Boeing 747, and 146-8 on the responsibility chart as a tool for team building) or Team Training16, with Action Learning as part of it (Noe, 2002: 233-6)
Group Exercises as part of team building (Armstrong, 1999: 848)]; Virtual Teams (Noe, 2002: 22); Group Dynamics Training (Burnes, 2000: 259-61; Armstrong, 1999: 148-57, 216, 229, 654, 848-9; Cole, 1995: 178-92; D’Souza, 1994: 181-97, 199-208; Rush, 1976: 8.7; Allen and Silverzweig, 1976: 17.1-17.11; Smith, 1970: 154-175 important discussion of a wide range of group training methods, which are specified in the references section below) [See also Group Methods (Agochiya, 2002: 200-5; Reith, 1976: 34.1-34.23), Group Building Methods, which include Adventure Learning17, Team Training and Action Learning (Noe, 2002: 231-6), Training Group (Agochiya, 2002: 78, 109, 124-36, 140-1 and 225-51), Team Work (Hammer, 1998: 16 for a definition of ‘team’, 21-30, 108-115 see p. 114 on the coach’s role in ‘football’ teams; D’Souza, 1994: 352-8). Saville includes among Group Methods18 the following: result/method demonstrations; general meetings; group meetings/discussions under the auspices of ‘mutual-interest’ societies, clubs or other ‘betterment teams’ (which may conceivably incorporate farmer’s day and women’s group meeting); the ‘bush school’ (for adult learning); plays (certainly including the travelling theatre) and puppet shows, farmer’s day, the demonstration gang, farm institutes, conducted tours or visits (including farm visits), community organizations, betterment teams and the community centre. (Saville, 1965: 56, 67-74, 99-108)];
Learning19 in Organizations as “the continuous testing of experience, and the transformation of that into knowledge – accessible to the whole organization, and relevant to its core purpose” (Senge et al, 1994: 48-9)20, or how to define and design Learning Organizations (Senge et al, 1994: 50-9).
II.7. Leadership, Management Training/Development, Change Agents; Outdoor Learning, Outdoor Management Training, Field Trip
Leadership or Management Training/Development (Hunt and Weintraub, 2002: 11 and 223-229; Cole, 2002:65-76; Noe, 2002: 9-10, 286-7; Burnes, 2000: 62-7, 209-10, 217, 483-505; Armstrong, 1999: 155; Graham and Bennett, 1998: 25-43; Hammer, 1998: 63-4, 86-93, 106, 114 on the coach’s role in ‘football’ teams, 132-5, 147-50, 160-1; Cole, 1997: 49-58; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95; Cole, 1995: 75-7, 193-211, 273; Luthans, 1992: 268-70, 273-90, 319-20, 339-41 on what leadership is, leadership theories and leadership skills/techniques for the future, and a leadership questionnaire; Powell, handout; D’Souza, 1994: 10-528; Chitere, 1994: 91-9, 135-40; Hammer and Champy, 1994: 79-82, 103-8; Senge, 1994: 339-60 on the leadership role in the learning organization: leader as designer (designer of the “ship”, not merely its helmsperson), steward (of the organization’s shared vision), teacher (one who can “foster learning, for everyone”) and generator/manager of “the creative tension of personal mastery”; Senge, et al, 1994: 435-440 on executive team learning; Roberts, 1993: 32-7, 61-84, 116-34; Rue and Byars, 1993; Roberts, 1990: 23-8, 34-8, 54-90; Hodgetts, 1983: 285-315; Schoenberg, 1978: 47-133, 159-70, 201-20, 223-41; Daly, 1976: 22.1-22.26; Reith, 1976: 34.19-34.24; Saville, 1965: 82-9).
Outdoor Learning (Bernardin, 2003: 179; Armstrong, 1999: 851-2) or “Outward Bound” Training, or Outdoor Management Training involving, for example, rock climbing or canoeing (Graham & Bennett, 1998: 309); Field Trip (Agochiya, 2002: 217-9); the classification and roles of Change Agents (Hammer, 1998: 220-4; Cole, 1995: 270-75; Chitere, 1994: 54-83).
II.8. Lectures, Talk, Classroom Instruction
Lectures (Bernardin, 2003: 174-5; Agochiya, 2002: 155-8; Noe, 2002: 216-7; Dessler, 2000: 260-1; Armstrong, 1999: 845-6; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 303; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95; Waweru, 1984: 73; Coventry and Burstiner, 1977: 373-4 on the need to “punctuate” the ‘lecture-and-listen,” or formal lecture, technique with “pauses for questions, comment, and discussion, making sure that every step in the argument is crystal clear”; Reith, 1976: 34.3 on Speech-Lecture; Salira, 1976: 117 who talks of ‘Directed Lecturing’; Smith, 1970:154-6; Saville, 1965: 54-5), Talk (Armstrong, 1999: 846; Coventry and Burstiner, 1977: 374 essentially equate talk and guest speaking with lecture), Classroom Instruction (Hunt and Weintraub, 2002: 219-31; Nzuve, 1997: 73; Broadwell, 1976: 33.1-39.13).
II.9. Seminars, Workshops, Clinics, Conferences, Conventions, Meetings, Inquiry Learning.
Seminars21 or Outside Seminars (Dessler, 2000: 275; Shenson, 1990; Waweru, 1984: 73; Reith, 1976: 34.5). Workshops22 (Chambers, 2002; Cole, 2002: 389; Armstrong, 1999: 295-6, 850-1; Cole, 1997: 324; Shenson, 1990; Rebedeau and Tagliere, 1976: 26.17-26.21; Reith, 1976: 34.5; Smith, 1970: 158-9); Clinics (Reith, 1976: 34.5). Conferences23 (Flippo, 1984: 215; Reith, 1976: 34.4; Byers, 1970: 339-43; Smith, 1970: 156-7). Conventions24 (Reith, 1976: 34.4-34.5). Meetings25 (D’Souza, 1994: 209-34; Reith, 1976: 34.5-34.14; Saville, 1965: 67-8, 71, 138-41) [and Special Meetings (Flippo, 1984: 215), and the Inquiry Learning component of technical training sessions (Rebedeau and Tagliere, 1976: 26.22-26.26)]. {Take note of the nature of Group Methods or the Group Process [encompassing Seminars, Meetings, Workshops, and conferences; as well as, inter alia, Team Building, Brainstorming, Role Playing and Games (Reith, 1976: 34.1-34.23; Smith, 1970: 160-4; see also Cole, 2002: 389-90 and Cole, 1997: 324 for Brainstorming and Workshops, and Agochiya, 2002: 207-8 for Brainstorming26, and Smith, 1970: 171-2 for Brainstorming), and Group Discussion (Agochiya, 2002: 200-5)]}.
II.10. Other Structured, Task-Oriented Meetings: Panel, Panel-Forum, Panel Interview/Selection, Board Interview, Colloquium, Colloquy, Symposium.
Panel27 (Agochiya, 2002: 205-7 on panel discussion as “a variant of the structured discussion format” which some take as synonymous with colloquium and symposium, also covers essential aspects of the technique, its strengths and weaknesses, and the modalities of using it; Reith, 1976: 34.3; Smith, 1970: 157-8), Panel-Forum28 (Reith, 1976: 34.3 also talks of Speech-Forum), Panel Interview or Panel Selection (Bernardin, 2003: 134; Dessler, 2000: 221-2; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 232-3; Stokes, 1987:97) and Board Interview (Graham & Bennett, 1998: 233), Colloquium29 (UNDP, 1994: 1-47)30, Colloquy31 (Reith, 1976: 34.4), Symposium32 (Reith, 1976: 34.3-34.4; see also Agochiya, 2002: 205-7).
II.11. Case Study, Case Method
Case Studies (Bernardin, 2003: 179 uses the term case analysis; Agochiya, 2002: 159-66; Hunt and Weintraub, 2002: 52-5, 73-6, 84-6, 93-4, 105-8, 157-60, 196-203, 223-228; Noe, 2002: 225-6; Cole, 2002: 355 and 389; Dessler, 2000: 275; Armstrong, 1999: 847; Cole, 1997: 294 and 324; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95; Flippo, 1984: 206; Coventry and Burstiner, 1977: 376-7 on the pros and cons of case studies; Smith, 1970: 164-8). The Case Method (which may incorporate Role Play for case analysis purposes) whose variants include the Harvard Method, the Wharton School Method, the Henley Syndicate Method, the Incident Process and Laboratory Exercises (or the ‘problem-solving approach’) (Pigors, 1976: 35.1-35.12; see also Waweru, 1984: 72 who, while acknowledging that the case method is among the most common techniques for management- and supervisor-level training (though not in Kenya), believes that it “over-simplifies” real life; Salira, 1976: 117-9 on Case Methodology and Syndicate Method; Smith, 1970: 169-71 on the Incident Process or the “critical incident” technique).
II.12. Games, Management/Business Games, Simulations, Gaming Simulation, In-Tray Training, Simulator/Interactive Computer Exercise, Drills and Exercises, In-basket Exercises, Table-Top Exercises, Monodrama, Role Playing, Role Reversal, Behaviour Modelling, Behaviour Modification.
Games (Bernardin, 2003: 179 includes here “non-computer-based simulations” or “nonequipment simulations”; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95; Coppard, 1976: 40.1-40.9) [Management/ Business Games (Agochiya, 2002: 186-91; Noe, 2002: 227; Dessler, 2000: 275; Flippo, 1994: 206; Waweru, 1984: 69-71; Coventry and Burstiner, 1977: 377-8; Salira, 1976: 119-20; see also Bray, 1976: 16.3 on Business Games as a management assessment technique)], Simulations (Noe, 2002: 224-5; Cole, 2002: 355 and 390 simulation exercise as “a combination of a case study with role-play”; Armstrong, 1999: 848; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 304; Cole, 1997: 284 and 324; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 96; ASIS, 1994: 57-8 highlighting simulations as exercises). Gaming Simulation (Coppard, 1976: 40.1-40.14). In-tray Training [a variation in Simulation Training] (Graham & Bennett, 1998: 304). Simulator/Interactive Computer Exercise (Cole, 2002: 390; Cole, 1997: 324). Drills and Exercises (ASIS, 1994: 56-7): In-basket Exercises (Bernardin, 2003: 179; Noe, 2002: 29133; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95; Flippo, 1984: 206; Smith, 1970: 174; see also Bray, 1976: 16.4 on the In-Basket as a management assessment technique). Table-Top Exercises as simulations or “interactive discussions of hypothetical scenarios” (ASIS, 1994: 57), Monodrama (Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95). Role Play(ing) (Bernardin, 2003: 179; Agochiya, 2002: 166-85; Noe, 2002: 227-8 and 291-2; Cole, 2002: 357 and 389; Dessler, 2000: 278; Armstrong, 1999: 229, 847-8; Cole, 1997: 324; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95 on Role Play, and Negotiation as Role Play, see also Smith, 1970: 160-4 on role playing; Cole, 1995: 273 stresses one function of role play, saying that it can be used as a technique of conflict management “to improve an individual’s handling of conflict with others”; Senge, 1994: 314-5 on the potential and limitation of role-play and on the microworld solution; Waweru, 1984: 71-2 who believes that, under certain conditions, role play “has some of the elements” of sensitivity training; Flippo, 1984: 207; Pigors, 1976: 35.3-35.5; Wohlking, 1976: 36.1-36.14), [or Behaviour Modelling (Bernardin, 2003: 179-80; Noe, 2002: 218, 228-31, 45234; Dessler, 2000: 278-9; Armstrong, 1999: 220; Arnold, Robertson and Cooper, 1996: 260-1 relate it to social learning theory; Flippo, 1984: 207), contrast that with Behaviour Modification (Armstrong, 1999: 126-7, 547)], and Role Reversal (Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95).
II.13. Distance Learning, Correspondence Study, Learner-Controlled Instruction, Self-Directed Learning, TBO.
Correspondence Study (Salinger, 1976: 38.1-38.14): Distance Learning including Teleconferencing (Noe, 2002: 266-7; Armstrong, 1999: 851), Learner-Controlled Instruction (Laird, 1976: 42.1- 42.8) or Independent Study (Bernardin, 2003: 176 sees this as one of the two main variants of self-directed learning, the other being programmed instruction; Saltzman, Maly and Hartshorn, 1976: 25.6), Self-Directed Learning or Self-Study (Noe, 2002: 220-2; Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 96; D’Souza, 1994: 358) or Training By Objectives (TBO) using self-development guides (Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95-6; Mahler, 1976: 21.10-21.12; Rebedeau and Tagliere, 1976: 26.13- 26.15).
II.14. Dialogue, Scenario/Vision-Building, Group Discussion.
How to Design and Conduct a Dialogue Session (Hunt and Weintraub, 2002: 90-108; Senge, 1994: 10 and 238-49, 260-6; Senge et al,1994: 357-64, 374-400 on the theory, levels and stages of dialogue (or ‘cool inquiry’), and on designing and conducting a dialogue session and skillful discussion; OECD, 1988: 5-46; Freire, 1973: 75-118 and 119-186); Scenario/Vision-Building as a strategic planning tool, etc. (Burnes, 2000: 242-8; Armstrong, 1999: 317-8; Senge, et al, 1994: 22-9, 201-12, 220-232, 275-86, 297, 302-3, 312 on personal vision/values, strategic and shared vision and their linkage with personal/ interpersonal mastery, and on creating scenarios; ASIS, 1994: 101-103); Group Discussion (Agochiya, 2002: 200-5; Armstrong, 1999: 846; D’Souza, 1994: 212-24; see also Bray, 1976: 16.3 on the Leaderless Group Discussion as a management assessment technique).
II.15. Sensitization Training, Sensitivity Training, Assertiveness Training.
Sensitization Training for Gender, Human, Religious and Cultural Rights or Sensitivity Training (Cole, 2002: 389; WHO, 2000: 15-20, 83-7, 137-9; Cole, 1997: 324; Cole, 1995: 273 on sensitivity training as a T-group context/environment or a solution to “the emotional aspects of group membership”; Waweru, 1984: 67-9 makes essentially the same point – associating it with “laboratory training”, the T-group and “executive action”-- and looks at both the positive and negative dimensions of the technique, concluding that much depends on participants’ openness and motivation to learn; UNHCR, 1994: 13-29 on assistance and protection modalities for refugees, predicated on their human rights; Flippo, 1984: 208-209) or Sensitivity Training Labs (Rush, 1976: 8.7) or, sometimes, Assertiveness Training (Armstrong, 1999: 850; Cole, 1995: 186-8, 219-21, 224-7; D’Souza, 1994: 316-28; Hodgetts, 1983: 88-91); see also T-Group Training (above).
II.16. Counselling, Related Community Services.
Broad Counselling Principles (Sutton and Stewart, 2002 read the whole of this “booklet”); Design for Community-Based Counselling Services (WHO, 2000: 89-92, 113-35; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 236-7 on the nature of counselling, the counselling interview, and counselling methods; Cole, 1995: 273, 225-7; Chitere, 1994: 99-112 useful information on the actualities and potentialities of community life; UNHCR, 1994: 27-41, 72; Hodgetts, 1983: 291-8 covers counselling functions and why and when employees need counselling; Yalov, 1971: 39-55 on T-group and Therapy group interfaces); Related Community Services (UNHCR, 1994: 13-26, 69-76); Staff Counselling (Humphries, 1995 read whole book, selectively).
11.17. Community Emergency Management Planning Exercise
Community Emergency Management Planning Exercise (WHO, 2000: 21-23, 25-28, 29-35, 44-50, 65-70, 71-78 ASIS, 1994: 3-10, 21-35, 81-97; Chitere, 1994: 2-32, 54-83, 103-35; D’Souza, 1994: 398-408, 448-72 on planned change and time management; Kasperson and Pijawka, 1985: 7-17; Settle, 1985: 101-6; Siegel, 1985: 107-17).
II.18. The KAP Approach to Training:
Training in Knowledge [e.g. coaching, mentoring, formal lectures, study visits/tours/trips, manuals/charts/codes/‘road maps’/models, simulation, in-tray, auto-instruction, programmed learning, CBT, and interactive video (Dessler, 2000: 260-2, 264-6, 268-9 on lectures, programmed learning, audiovisual techniques, CBT and training for special purposes such as functional literacy and AIDS education/awareness; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 301-6; see also Pattanayak & Verma, 1997: 95 for a few of these; Brethower, 1976: 39.1-39.23 for programmed instruction; Smith, 1970: 151-2).
Training in Attitudes [or Attitude Training, e.g. on-the-job experience, coaching or on-the-job attachment to a senior, on/off-the-job discussion of relevant case studies, role playing, T-group training] (Armstrong, 1999: 98, 488; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 294-6; Cole, 1995: 113-7; D’Souza, 1994: 507-19; see also Bernardin, 2003: 179; Cole, 2002: 384 and Armstrong, 1999: 492 and 547 for Experiential Learning; and Pattanayak & Verma,1997: 95 for experiential training and case studies; Luthans, 1992: 108-13 on the emotional, informational and behavioural components of attitude, on the determinants/ antecedents of work-related attitudes, on the functions of attitudes and the determinants of attitude change).
Training in Skills [or Skill Training, e.g. ‘sitting next to Nellie’, job breakdown, skill analysis, and the discovery method or discovery learning (Graham and Bennett, 1998: 299-301; Cole, 1995: 87-89; also see Armstrong, 1999: 492 who sees cognitive theory as the anchor for discovery learning, and ‘self-managed’ or other DIY modes of learning) or Technical/Craft Training (Armstrong, 1999: 492 and 525-9)]: apprenticeship (Armstrong, 1999: 528-9; Graham & Bennett, 1998: 327; Nzuve, 1997: 72; Flippo, 1984: 201; Steinmetz, 1976: 1.4; Walsh, 1976: 6.3; Saltzman, Maly and Hartshorn, 1976: 25.7; Yambo, 1991: 10-15, 46-55), informal sector training (Yambo, 1991: 1-118), case method (Pigors, 1976: 35.1-35.12), attachment (Agochiya, 2002: 215-7), off-the-job technical/vocational training (Nzuve, 1997: 70-72).
II.19. Performance Appraisal (PA), Performance Audit, Performance Improvement (PI), Performance Management.
Performance Appraisal (PA) (Noe, 2002: 293-7, includes 360-degree feedback; Cole, 2002: 298-309; Cole, 1997: 244-53; Armstrong, 1999: 439-63; Cole, 1995: 273; Senge, et al, 1994: 221-2; Flippo, 1984: 224-31; Morrison, 1976: 9.13); Performance Audit (Rummler, 1976: 14.1-14.16; Peterson and Duffany, 1976: 15.2); Performance Improvement (PI) (Lande, 2002: 1-27; Armstrong, 1999: 432-3; D’Souza, 1994: 276-94 calls it performance counselling and notes that it may also pass under other labels such as coaching, helping, appraising (!), developing and problem-solving; Morrison, 1976: 9.13 ); Performance Management (Armstrong, 1999: 427-63); Evaluating Employee Development (Engel, 1970: 253-276).
REFERENCES AND SELECTIVE ANNOTATIONS
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in Business. New Delhi: Response Books/Sage. [Pages 1-71 are particularly useful in introducing the reader to essential components of the coaching role. Chapter 9 (pp. 139-60) has useful insights on the dynamics of feedback. The book contains many case studies (useful to those who wish to examine the structure/design of brief case studies). The case studies are useful in their own right, covering such themes as the reluctant coachee, coaching dialogues, performance gaps, and classroom training.]
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A Byers, Ed. Employee Training and Development in the Public Service. Chicago: Public Personnel Association.
Kasperson, Roger E. and K. David Pijawka. 1985. “Societal Response to Hazards and Major Hazard Events: Comparing Natural and Technological Hazards,” pp.7-17, in William J. Petak, ed., Emergency Management: A Challenge for Public Administration. Public Administration Review, Vol. 45, Special Issue (January 1985)
Katz, D. and R.L. Kahn. 1969. “Common Characteristics of Open Systems,” pp. 86-104, in F.E. Emery, ed, Systems Thinking. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
Koestler, Arthur. 1967. The Ghost in the Machine. Chicago: Gateway Edition.
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McGraw-Hill. 1987. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. Volume 7. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
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1 Noe (2002: 307, 452) sees a coach as “ a peer or manager who works with an employee to motivate him/her, help him/her develop skills, and provide reinforcement and feedback.” All this, he adds, can be achieved using three approaches (or three components of the coaching role): giving individualized feedback by going “one-on-one with an employee,” helping employees “to learn for themselves” and teaching them how to get feedback from others, and finally giving them access to mentors, courses or job experiences which would otherwise be out of reach for them.
2 PEDOS = Preparation, Explanation, Demonstration, Observation and Supervision (Rebedeau and Tagliere, 1976: 26.15)
3 Noe (2002: 453) defines cross-training as a “Training method in which team members understand and practice each other’s skills so that members are prepared to step in and take another member’s place should he temporarily or permanently leave the team.” Cross-training may also “more simply, [involve] training employees to learn the skills of one or several additional jobs.”
4 This business process reengineering represents a decisive shift from the traditional/Smithian ‘industrial model’ typified by complex processes-simple tasks to a new model epitomizing simple processes-complex tasks and meeting “the contemporary demands of quality, service, flexibility, and low cost” (Hammer and Champy, 1994: 51-2).
5 For a “comprehensive summary” of feedback thinking, Senge (1994: 395) refers his readers to: George Richardson. 1990. Feedback Thought in Social Science and Systems Theory. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
6 Upward feedback “refers to the appraisal process involving collecting subordinates’ evaluations of managers’ behaviors or skills” (Noe, 2002: 294). In other words, feedback flows upward from “subordinates to their managers” (see Armstrong, 1999: 466 who calls such flow 180-degree feedback).
7 360-degree feedback means feedback of performance data, via questionnaires or rating forms, to an individual or group from “all” points of the compass, or “all” directions: the superiors/managers/bosses, peers, co-workers, team members, “internal customers,” subordinates, and their own self-reports (Armstrong, 1999: 465; Noe, 2002: 294-5). Noe (2002: 294) adds that the 360-degree feedback is “a special case of the upward feedback process,” and that both have recently become a feature of the performance appraisal of management-level staff. And Armstrong (1999: 466) notes that when suppliers, clients and external customers are involved, the 360-degree feedback transforms into “540-degree” feedback.
8 Luthans (1992: 215-6) stresses the view that reinforcement is distinct from motivation, though conceptually related to it – and that it is wrong to equate them. To him, motivation is “a basic psychological process [which] is broader and more complex” than reinforcement, and the needs that prop it are “cognitive” – that is, “unobservable inner states.” Reinforcement, on the other hand, is driven by “external, environmental events that are consequences of behavior.” Motivation is an “internal explanation” of behaviour, while reinforcement is an “external explanation.”
9 Bateson (1972: 401) explains, as though in passing, that “the subject matter of cybernetics is not events and objects [‘in the natural world’] but the information ‘carried’ by events and objects. We consider the objects or events only as proposing facts, propositions, messages, percepts, and the like.” Moreover, the cybernetic explanation (in relation, for example, to communication systems) focuses on “sequences which resemble stimulus-and-response,” while the causal explanation is all about cause-and-effect. Now, the really important thing here is that in communication systems “the energy of the response is usually provided by the respondent,” while in cause-and effect situations it is transferred from subject to object – that is, from cause to effect (Bateson, 1972: 403). In the one, attention dwells upon response, in the other, upon effect. But Senge (1994: 78) describes the “feedback process” as a “loop of cause-effect [not stimulus-response] relationships”.
10 We should also include in feedforward the wide range of socialization/induction/orientation processes that one may observe; and vocational, technical and professional training of various kinds. Also note that there is implied or unacknowledged or hidden feedforward in much of the literature (particularly cybernetics, systems, and automation literature) that interrogates feedback.
11 Cole (1997: 322) sees delegation as “essentially a power-sharing process in which a manager transfers his or her authority to another, more junior person.” The amount of power actually shared, he adds, is contingent upon at least three factors: the perceived urgency of the situation, the junior person’s “readiness for power,” and the manager’s willingness to share it.
12 Noe (2002: 451) defines audiovisual instruction as “Media-based training that is both watched and heard.”
13 “Team” is defined by Senge et al (1994: 354) as “any group of people who need each other to accomplish a result.” Certainly, applying the concept to real-life situations would pose at least one and probably two major problems: how to agree on the boundaries of need each other, and what results to associate with what groups of people – if we are not to fall into the Tom, Dick and Harry trap. Based on that definition, the authors wish to include in organizational team learning environments a number of the hitherto excluded, such as: suppliers, customers and associates.
14 Here T stands for “training laboratory in group dynamics” (Rogers, 1971: 16).
15 Armstrong (1999: 229) lists the following techniques as appropriate to team building: action learning, group dynamics, group exercises, training in interactive skills, interactive video, role play, simulation and outdoor learning.
16 Team training is a training method that “involves coordinating the performances of individuals who work together to achieve a common goal.” The performances to be coordinated have three components: knowledge, attitudes and behaviour (Noe, 2002: 233, 464). These components are certainly reminiscent of KAP. Interestingly, Noe (2002: 233) comments that the knowledge component “requires team members to have mental models or memory structures that allow them to function effectively in unanticipated or new situations.” This picture of the knowledge component clearly draws attention to feedforward thinking, though Noe does not acknowledge the linkage – feedforward not being part of his vocabulary in this book.
17 Adventure learning, also known as wilderness training or outdoor training, is a training or group building method which “focuses on the development of teamwork and leadership skills using structured outdoor activities...[It] appears to be best suited for developing skills related to group effectiveness such as self-awareness, problem solving, conflict management, and risk taking” (Noe, 2002: 231). Examples of adventure learning activities given by the author include: mountain climbing, wall climbing, rope courses (or “rope-based activities”), ladder climbing, “The Beam”, and sliding from one building tower to another (pp. 231-2).
18 In contrast, Saville (1965: 56 and 75) identifies the following Individual Methods: personal visits (to a farm or home or extension office), individual letters, circular letters (which contain the same information as, and are therefore rather similar to, bulletins and leaflets), and telephone calls. He also lists the following Mass Methods: broadcasts, news articles for the media, agricultural shows, bulletins and leaflets (Saville, 1965: 56-60).
19 To Senge et al (1994: 49), learning here means to “study” and “practice constantly.” It is, in other words, continual, life-long “mastery of the way of self-improvement.”
20 Senge et al (1994: 49) also provide a four-point checklist for measuring managers’ concrete learning processes/experiences against the definition.
21 The Collins Dictionary defines a seminar as “a small group of students” which meets regularly, guided by a tutor or professor or such other person; “one such meeting” or the venue for it; a higher postgraduate course; or “any group or meeting” convened for a discussion or information exchange.
22 A workshop is, according to the Collins Dictionary, “a group of people engaged in study or work on a creative project or subject.”
23 A conference is “a meeting for consultation or discussion,” in particular a meeting with a formal agenda; or, in some Protestant Churches, “an assembly of the clergy or of clergy and laity” (Collins Dictionary).
24 A convention is “a large formal assembly of a group with common interests, such as a trade union;” or, in US politics, “an assembly of delegates of one party to select candidates for office” (the Collins Dictionary).
25 Simply put, a meeting is any “assembly or gathering” of people (Collins Dictionary).
26 Also see Pattanayak & Verma (1997: 95) for Brainstorming.
27 A panel is “a group of persons selected to act as a team in a quiz”, “to discuss a topic before an audience”, or to be involved in similar activities; and a panellist is a panel member, particularly in a radio or TV broadcast (the Collins Dictionary).
28 A forum is defined in the Collins Dictionary as “a meeting for the open discussion of subjects of public interest”; “a medium for open discussion, such as a magazine”; or “a public meeting place for open discussion.”
29 In the Collins Dictionary, a colloquium is “a gathering for discussion,” or “an academic seminar.”
30 Use this source/text as a case study to construct your own understanding of the generic aspects of a colloquium; and of how the ‘labels’ intended to distinguish different kinds of group meeting or gathering are losing their distinctiveness through unintended misuse or perhaps colloquial careless use. You can use for the same purpose published proceedings of carefully selected panel discussions, fora, colloquys and symposia.
31 The Collins Dictionary defines a colloquy as “a formal conversation or conference,” or “an informal conference on religious or theological matters.”.
32 The word symposium is used in the Collins Dictionary to mean “a conference or meeting” convened to discuss a particular subject, particularly “an academic topic or a social problem;” or a collection of scholarly papers covering a chosen topic.
33 As Noe (2002: 291) describes it, in-basket training entails “a simulation of the administrative tasks of the manager’s job. The exercise includes a variety of documents that may appear in the in-basket on a manager’s desk. The participant is asked to read the materials and decide how to respond to them.” He adds that the manager’s response can take various forms, including: delegation, calling a meeting, written replies, or even a decision not to respond to a document.
34 Behaviour Modelling defined here as “A training method in which trainees are presented with a model who demonstrates key behaviors to replicate and provides them with the opportunity to practice these key behaviors” (Noe, 2002: 452).
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