Amsterdam is a city of over one million inhabitants, [1] located in the Province of North Holland (Noord-Holland), in the Netherlands (Nederland). It is traditionally the most prominent city of the Netherlands, and it is the capital city because the Constitution says so, although only in passing. Article 32 states that the monarch must swear the oath of office "in the capital Amsterdam" - and that was only re-inserted in 1983, after being scrapped in 1815. [2] Apart from a few years in Napoleonic times, the seat of government has always been The Hague.
Amsterdam is the financial and cultural centre of the Netherlands, and is generally considered a second-tier European metropolitan region, comparable with Barcelona or Milan. [3] Although on average the region is prosperous (provincial GDP 51% above EU average), [4] there are ethnic and religious tensions in Amsterdam (resulting from mass immigration), and increasing inequality and residential segregation.
Name, definition, population
Municipality or urban region?
The core of the urban area is the municipality of Amsterdam (Gemeente Amsterdam). In common use in the Netherlands, "Amsterdam" refers only to this municipality. However, the municipality is clearly smaller than the city of Amsterdam, because its boundary cuts through the built-up area. The continuous built-up area extends into the municipalities of Amstelveen, Diemen, and Ouder-Amstel. The population of the municipality (gemeente) was 758 127 in December 2008. [6] It has an area of 21 939 hectares (219 km2), but only 16 672 hectares is land. The population density on land is 4 457 / km2, as of 2007. [7] The municipal territory is not contiguous. The borough Zuidoost (South-East) is an exclave, and the new suburb of IJburg is built on artificial islands, linked to Amsterdam by a bridge.
The municipality and 15 others are members of the City-Region, Stadsregio Amsterdam - which co-ordinates some planning and transport policy. It had a population of 1 374 727 on 01 January 2008, and an area of 1003 km2. Of that 810 km2 is land, giving a population density of 1697/km2. [8] The 15 other municipalities are:
- north of Amsterdam: Beemster, Edam-Volendam, Landsmeer, Purmerend, Waterland, Wormerland, Zeevang, Oostzaan and Zaanstad
- south of Amsterdam: Aalsmeer, Amstelveen, Diemen, Haarlemmermeer, Ouder-Amstel and Uithoorn.
For planning purposes, there is a larger non-administrative unit called the Metropolitan Region Amsterdam. Its population in 2007 was 2 158 372, about 13% of the national population. [9] It has an area of 1815 km2 and it extends into the Provinces of Utrecht and Flevoland.
Amsterdam is part of the Randstad, the heavily urbanised area including Utrecht, Gouda, Rotterdam, The Hague, Leiden and Haarlem. The Randstad is not an administrative unit, it is not clearly defined, and it may not even exist as a geographic entity - in the sense that its elements have something in common, which non-Randstad towns and cities do not. The same area might also be referred to as "the western Netherlands", or as the three provinces of Utrecht, North Holland and South Holland. The Randstad is sometimes seen as comprising a North Wing and a South Wing, and inside the circle of cites is the supposedly rural Green Heart. Amsterdam is now lobbying to have the 'North Wing' renamed as the Metropolitan Region Amsterdam, implying a break with a Randstad planning model. [10] At the other extreme is a lobby for a Delta Metropolis, [11] a planning strategy to create a single city of about 8 million people - primarily favoured by property developers, who want to build in the protected landscapes of the Green Heart.
Geography and landscape
Amsterdam is located 25 kilometres inland from the North Sea, at 52° 22' North, 4° 54' East. [12] The city and its surroundings form part of the Rhine delta. The front of the delta is a line of coastal dunes, cut by a few river channels. About 4 000 years ago, one of these channels, the proto-IJ, drained into the North Sea near Castricum. It was fed by what is now the river Vecht, a distributary of the Rhine. By Roman times, the mouth of the channel had silted up, leaving the IJ as a lake. [13] In 1170, [14] the sea broke through into a large freshwater lake (the Almere), turning it into the Zuider Zee, a tidal arm of the North Sea. The IJ became an estuary again, only this time facing east into the Zuider Zee. In 1932, the Enclosure Dike (Afsluitdijk) reversed the breakthrough, converting the Zuiderzee back into a fresh-water lake. It is now known as the IJsselmeer, and the part nearest Amsterdam as the IJmeer (meer = lake). The Vecht, no longer a main Rhine channel, now flows into the IJmeer at Muiden.
Computer simulation of post-glacial coastal evolution: Download, 50 MB
Paleo-geographic maps of post-glacial Netherlands: Download as ZIP, 5MB, at TNO
As the climate warmed, at the end of the last Ice Age, peat bogs formed in much of the delta. About the time Amsterdam was founded, the landscape of the present Stadsregio consisted entirely of peat bog, lakes, and the tidal water of the IJ estuary. Since peat bogs form by accumulation of dead vegetation, they can rise slowly, and in places they were 10 metres above sea level. Apart from this, there was no natural relief. The surface geology of the region is therefore simple: it is covered entirely in Holocene deposits. During the Ice Ages, much of the present Netherlands was covered by sand blown in from the dry bed of the North Sea, by the prevailing wind from the ice-cap. This 'coversand', up to tens of meters thick in places, underlies the region: above it are thinner, locally varying layers of peat, sand and marine clay. On land, the original top layer is peat, but on reclaimed lake beds, and the reclaimed IJ estuary, this layer is missing.
Human intervention - forest clearance, drainage, turf-cutting and agriculture - exposed the peat, and it oxidised and shrunk. That left the entire landscape at sea level, and it had to be protected by dikes, from about the year 1000. (It was not reclaimed from the sea, as chauvinistic legend claims). The present underlying landscape [15] [16] [17] [18] is entirely manmade, consisting of artificially drained polders, and entirely below sea level. All land currently above sea level has been artificially raised. The high water table makes the land too wet for most crops, so almost all of it was used as pasture. The result is the veenweidelandschap - a landscape of meadows (weide) on former peat bog (veen). With the Frisian cows and the windmills for drainage, it became the iconic Dutch landscape, by the 17th century. (Much of it has since been lost to urbanisation).
The landscape of the larger Metropolitan Region is more varied. A delta itself is by its nature flat, but there are two sources of relief: coastal dunes and glacial landforms. The wind-formed 'active dunes', immediately behind the beaches, are up to 45 metres high. Behind them is a strip of sandy higher ground, and behind that some lines of relict dunes, which formed low ridges in the marshes: these drier zones were settled early. About 20 kilometres east of Amsterdam is the tip of an ice-pushed ridge. It marks the edge of the Scandinavian ice-sheet, during the Saale ice age, about 200 000 years ago. The Saalian ice front (map) pushed sand and gravel in front of it, which was left at the point of furthest glaciation. Eroded during the last interglacial and the last ice age, the present ridge in the Gooi region (around Hilversum) is up to 36 metres above sea level. [19] The landscape there, the soil, and therefore the agricultural tradition, all differ from the landscape of the former peat bogs. The landscape around Almere (in Flevoland Province), is completely different from either. It is former sea-bed reclaimed in 1968: a 100% planned landscape, designed for modern large-scale agriculture, and urban use.
All major natural hazards in the region are water-related. The primary sea defences of the region are the coastal dunes. The national Delta Commission expects a sea-level rise of 0.65 to 1.30 m in the next 100 years, and 2 to 4 metres by 2200. It advises widening the dune strip of North and South Holland, by adding sea-dredged sand. The Commission also proposed raising the level of the IJsselmeer lake by 150 cm, to serve as a fresh-water reservoir. [20] As part of the Rhine delta, Amsterdam is in principle vulnerable to flooding by that river (the region around Utrecht would be flooded first, only then would the water reach Amsterdam). The Rhine dikes have already been raised after floods in the 1990's, and the river zones will be further restructured to cope with higher maximum flows, up to 18 000 m3 / second.
Climate
The Netherlands has a temperate maritime climate. There is a temperature gradient (map) from south-west to north-east, and Amsterdam lies about half-way along it. However, the temperature extremes (map minimum and map maximum) are significantly less in a strip along the coast, including Amsterdam. Rainfall is similar to that in much of the country, but the coastal strip near Amsterdam has significantly more sunshine than the east of the country. The effect is even more pronounced in terms of solar radiation. The average wind speed also falls off sharply away from the coast.
The annual average temperature for the Amsterdam region (measured at Schiphol, 1971-2000) is 9.7° Celsius. [21] Average minimum is 6.1°, average maximum is 13.4°. Winters are not extreme: an average of only 8 days with temperature below zero all day, and 26 days with some snow. In the coldest month, January, the daytime temperature is on average 5.4°. In the warmest month, August, it is 21.8°.
There are 1 581 hours of sunshine, meaning that is is cloudy for two-thirds of all daylight hours. Average wind-speed is 5.1 m/s: on 20 days a year, it exceeds 7 Beaufort. Average rainfall is 780 mm, which is not exceptionally high. However, it is widely spread, so that it rains on 234 days a year. The stereotype of cloudy and wet 'Dutch weather' does have some foundation.
Average temperatures in the Netherlands have risen by 1.5 degrees since 1950, twice as fast as global warming. Recent years have been exceptionally warm, even considering this rise. [22] In 2006 and 2007, the climate was comparable to that of France. [23] Skating on the Amsterdam canals in winter (which was always exceptional) is now very unlikely. Precipitation has also risen, and the the coastal zone is progressively getting wetter compared to the inland zone: each 1-degree rise means 15% more rainfall there. [24]
Urban geography
Much of the street pattern of the original settlement, and its mediaeval growth, is preserved, although only a few buildings survive. The first streets were aligned north-south, roughly parallel to the Amstel river. As it expanded concentrically, the city gradually assumed a semicircular form. The 17-century expansion, with the main canal ring, was planned as a semicircle - although it was built in segments, counter-clockwise. The Amstel flowed from south to north through the city: the dikes of the IJ near the city ran roughly east-west. The first expansion outside the city walls after 1870 was also concentric, creating a ring of low-income housing just across the former moat (the Singelgracht). After the First World War, the strict concentric pattern was abandoned, as specific expansions had their own street pattern. The construction of Centraal Station and its approach tracks (1880's) definitively cut off the old city from the IJ estuary, and its banks filled with industry and docks. (As the port moved westwards they were abandoned, and are now being gentrified). North of the IJ, there were two small dike villages, Buiksloot and Nieuwendam: the rest of the land behind the dike was pasture, until garden-city type housing was built in the 1920's.
The Amstel near the City Hall and Opera, image by Gramz
By the Second World War, the city south of the IJ had reached the line of the present ring motorway. The massive housing programs that began in the 1950's, had no relationship to the traditional form of the city. They did concentrate development into four major blocks: west, south, south-east, and north. The southern block (Buitenveldert / Amstelveen ) and the south-eastern (Zuidoost) are the most linear. The core of present borough of Zuidoost is a massive 1970's housing project - built together with the first metro line, alongside the rail line to Utrecht. The post-war expansion brought the villages of Sloterdijk, Sloten, Diemen, and Amstelveen into the built-up area, but Ouderkerk aan de Amstel survived as a separate village, between the southern and south-eastern block. By the 1990's the limits of expansion were reached - the remaining rural areas are protected landscape. Increasing the density of existing housing is unpopular among Dutch planners, so the municipality is building a new suburb, IJburg, on artificial islands.
The well-preserved urban structure is reflected in the unusually high number, of designated heritage sites: 8597 in 2007. Almost all are in the borough Centrum, the historical core of the city. [25] The national government proposed listing the entire city centre as a UNESCO World Heritage site (list), but the proposal has now been scaled down to the main canal ring. [26] A decision is expected in 2010.
The larger Metropolitan Region has two major axes of settlement. One is parallel to the coastal dunes, about 5 to 10 km inland: Haarlem is its largest centre. The other formed when villages along the Zaan river coalesced: it can be seen as a north-eastern extension of Amsterdam (along the rail line to Alkmaar). South-west of Amsterdam is a reclaimed lake bed Haarlemmermeer, which provided an ideal location for the national airport Schiphol. It has two urban centres, Hoofddorp and Nieuw-Vennep, but airport noise blocks further development. Indeed, demolition of existing housing is being considered, to allow airport expansion. Until about 1900, the rest of the former peat bog around Amsterdam was grassland, with small linear villages. They did not coalesce, but most of them expanded, often losing their historical linear form. The settlements on the Gooi ridge are former heathland villages: their growth was to some extent determined by rail and tram lines to Amsterdam. Notable is the absence of a major urban axis, along the infrastructure corridor to Utrecht, the south, and the Rhineland (with the Amsterdam-Rhine canal, A2 motorway, and a 4-track railway).
By now, the Netherlands has an acute shortage of development land. Housing competes with other land-intensive uses (agriculture, airports, business parks), and all development is problematic. The 'growth of Amsterdam' has become a regional phenomenon: not in any planned form, not on a historical pattern, but simply where there are plots available.
Urban planning policies in the municipality and region are largely determined by the role of Amsterdam as financial and services centre, and by the neoliberal idea of competition among city-regions for inward investment. The perceived priorities of foreign investors are: office space, motorways, and access to the airport. The result is an emphasis on clusters of offices along the ring motorway: they are the most prominent feature of the the city, seen from the surviving open landscape outside it. Upgrading of the road network in the region, increasing motorway capacity, and expanding the airport, are also planning priorities. Schiphol airport (and associated businesses) form a powerful lobby at national level - second only to the farmers lobby associated with the Christian-Democrats. The Amsterdam port lobby is much weaker than that of Rotterdam, but port expansion is also a planning priority. In the region, the demand for low-density housing and the associated developers lobby, are constantly eroding farm land at the edge of existing settlements. Since no land is ever converted back to farm use, the trend is inevitably toward 100% suburbanisation of the region.
Given this background, environmental issues and urban design have a low priority. Claims that the urban and regional policies 'encourage cycling and public transport', for instance, are not backed by the statistics. According to a leaked planning ministry report, car ownership is growing fast, and might even double by 2040. Schiphol airport could handle 130 million passengers by that time, worsening congestion and environmental problems. [27] National government plans for the development of the Randstad until 2040 [28] also suggest a massive expansion of Schiphol, and suburbanisation of the remaining agricultural landscape. The open Waterland region, just north of the city, would lose its status as a protected landscape, and other farm areas would be flooded to create sites for 'lakeshore' housing.
Demographics
The population of the late-mediaeval city (1560) was about 30 000. [29] It grew to over 200 000 in the course of the 17th century, and then stagnated during the 18th century. [30] Growth resumed in the mid-19th century - at first without any corresponding expansion of the urban area, leading to great overcrowding. Until the 19th century, the municipal boundary coincided almost exactly with the city walls. Part of the growth since then, is due to annexations of adjoining municipalities: [31] [32]
- parts of Sloten, Diemen en Nieuwer-Amstel, in 1896
- all of Ransdorp, Nieuwendam, Buiksloot, Watergraafsmeer and Sloten, and parts of Zaandam, Oostzaan, Westzaan, Diemen, Nieuwer-Amstel and Ouder-Amstel, in 1921 - when the city quadrupled its area [33]
- all of Weesperkarspel, in 1966
The population rose to 500 000 by 1900, and reached its peak in the 1960's: [34]
1870 264 000 [35]
1900 510 853
1921 683 166
1940 800 594
1950 835 834
1960 869 602
1970 831 463
1980 716 967
1990 695 221
2000 731 289
After the Second World War, the municipality had a negative net domestic migration, due to suburbanisation. Much of it was planned dispersal, to new and expanding towns, such as Almere and Purmerend. That was counterbalanced by immigration, and the continuing flow of young people (especially students) into the city. Since the 1990's, population has grown again to around 750 000, still short of its peak. There were 407 057 households in 2007, more than half of them single-person households. Only 15% are nuclear families ('married or unmarried cohabiting with children'). [34] The proportion of one-parent families is stable at 40%. [36] Average household size is falling continuously, and now stands at 1.8 persons. Shrinking household size means rising demand for housing units, even if population stabilises. According to the national planning office, the population of the municipality is projected to rise to 837 000 by 2025, a rise of 13% compared to a national growth of only 3%. [37] The city statistics office projects a lower population for 2030, at 823 000. [38]
The population projections are dependent on estimates of migration, and that is always unpredictable and subject to political controversy. In the 1970's, internal net migration loss exceeded immigration, and the municipality lost population. During the 1980's domestic net migration fell, and the population grew by immigration. During this time natural increase was close to zero. From the 1990's, natural increase once again became a factor in the city's growth, but in some years there was net emigration (emigration includes return migration). With two universities, Amsterdam attracts young domestic migrants specifically, especially 18-25 year-olds from other provinces. [39]
At regional level, Amsterdam's loss of population was balanced by growth in the suburbanising municipalities, and many of them are still growing. The proximity of Schiphol airport drove especially strong population growth in Haarlemmermeer, which is expected to continue until 2030. [40] The demographics of Almere are exceptional: the first house was built in 1976, on uninhabited reclaimed land. Population has now reached 186 000, and planning targets for 2030 have been revised to 350 000. [41]
Ethnic and social issues
In 1955, Amsterdam was an overwhelmingly 'white' and monocultural city - inhabited by ethnic Dutch people who spoke the Dutch language, and with an unchallenged Dutch culture and national identity. Mass immigration has transformed the character of the city, clearly destroying the society which existed 50 years ago. That might not have been an issue, if no-one had objected, and if the immigrants had been assimilated into a new society. But in fact assimilation has failed, many ethnic Dutch are bitterly resentful of the loss of their former society, and Amsterdam is a polarised and increasingly segregated city. Immigrant poverty and white flight have combined to make 'race' and 'class' issues inseparable. On top of that, the arrival of Islam as a major religion provoked an aggressive reaction, reviving the country's tradition of inter-religious hostility.
As a result, many social and political issues are intertwined: residential segregation, religious schools, homophobia, unemployment, the place of Islam in Europe, female circumcision, urban renewal, immigration, terrorism, discrimination, crime, the burqa. This mix dominates Dutch political culture, both nationally and in Amsterdam. It cannot be understood without the terms autochtone and allochtone. Borrowed from geology and biology, they were originally intended as neutral terms, but acquired extensive political connotations. The national official definition is that an allochtone is a "person with at least one foreign-born parent". [42] That underestimates immigrant minorities, since they disappear from the official statistics after the second generation. In general use, 'autochtone' means persons of Dutch descent, with no recognisable traces of foreign ancestry. All the others are 'allochtones' - it means essentially foreigners, with a negative connotation. The word is often used interchangeably with 'immigrant' and often with 'Muslim'. Dutch political culture assumes an inherent conflict between the two groups - which is generally true, since the national identity is at stake.
In the municipality of Amsterdam, using the official definition, 51% of the population are autochtone. In reality, the ethnic Dutch are probably in the minority, and they are certainly on the defensive.
Ethnic origin, January 2008 [43]
Suriname 68 813 down 0.1% over 2007
Dutch Caribbean islands 11 440 up 1.3%
Turkey 38 913 up 0.9%
Morocco 67 153 up 1.4%
Other non-western allochtone 72 175 up 1.3%
Total non-western allochtone 258 494 up 0.9%
Western immigrant 107 422 up 2.6%
Autochtone (ethnic Dutch) 381 374 down 0.2%
The mass immigration was not 'post-colonial' in nature, although Suriname is an ex-colony. The Dutch Caribbean islands (Antillies) are the only remaining overseas territory. Economic migration from the periphery of the European Union, is the main reason for the ethnic transformation of Dutch cities.
Society, education, and the labour market are now ethnically segregated. As in most of western Europe, minorities are over-represented in low-income occupations, and some low-pay sectors (cleaning) are almost 100% immigrant-staffed. Discrimination in employment takes the form of ethnic hierarchies, rather than a simple refusal to employ minorities. A large bank would employ Turks in low-paid clerical work, but never as senior managers. Employment agencies are also segregated: large firms such as Randstad and USG have separate offices for allochtones, nominally on the basis of job type. Ethnic employment agencies (which emerged after liberalisation of the agency market) do find work for minorities, but only in the lowest-paid jobs.
On average, allochtones earn less than autochtones, are more likely to be unemployed, and have fewer educational qualifications. Excluding the illegal immigrants, Antillians and Moroccans are generally the worst off. Amsterdam now has a largely ethnic underclass: unemployed and working poor. It includes those permanently employed on workfare projects (officially pending their 'reintegration' into the labour market), and it is geographically concentrated in the western and south-eastern suburbs. This underclass is de facto excluded from higher education - because few people who start school in these areas, will ever attend university. Because so much labour migration came from two Muslim countries (Morocco and Turkey), the underclass also has a different religion. The association of religion and disadvantage is clearest in education: Islamic schools are generally the worst in the country.
Resentment and fear of Islam has compounded the general hostility to immigrant minorities. Calls to expel or kill all Muslims and/or foreigners - once confined to neonazi websites - now appear regularly on mainstream forums and blogs, such as those of the Amsterdam-based Telegraaf (the country's largest newspaper). The violent tone is characteristic of the Dutch-language internet, and is considered socially acceptable. Although incitement is illegal, prosecutions are rare. Xenophobic sentiment is not confined to a 'white working class', and a recurrent theme is that most social problems would be solved, if all allochtones "went home". In a recent survey, 56% saw Islam as a threat to the national identity, and 57% said that mass immigration was the worst mistake in Dutch history. [44] 42% of the ethnic Dutch population think that there are too many foreigners in the country. [45] The anti-Islamic nationalism of populist Geert Wilders has many supporters: in his view, immigration, crime in Dutch cities, and Al-Qaeda, are all facets of the ongoing Islamic conquest of the western world.
Some groups show a specific hostility to immigrants (especially to Moroccans). Jewish anti-immigrant sentiment is motivated by fears of a future Muslim-dominated city, or even an Islamic state. There is also a perception that parts of Amsterdam are already unsafe, for anyone recognisable as a Jew. In January 2009 the Integration Minister appealed for calm between Jews and Moroccans, a belated officicial recognition of the specific tensions between the two groups. [46] In turn, the concepts of Eurabia and dhimmitude, originating on the Jewish right, have influenced xenophobic politicians such as Geert Wilders. The Jewish deputy Mayor, Lodewijk Asscher, once described Moroccan primary-school children as "all growing up to be terrorists". Despite his reputation as a multiculturalist, mayor Job Cohen is an anti-immigration hardliner, who pioneered legislation against asylum-seekers when he was Justice Minister. He was one of the first Jewish politicians in Europe, to seek an alliance with the extreme right: after the assassination of the xenophobic populist Pim Fortuyn in 2002, Cohen marched together with the Dutch supporters of the neonazi website Stormfront, to honour Fortuyn's memory. Gays in the Netherlands increasingly support right-wing, anti-immigrant parties, [47] a process accelerated by Fortuyn's emphasis on immigrant (especially Muslim) homophobia. The largest gay organisation, the Amsterdam-based COC, specifically blames Moroccans for rising anti-gay violence in Amsterdam. [48] Racist intellectuals such as Paul Cliteur and Paul Scheffer also influence policy: Scheffer is a prominent member of the Labour Party (PvdA). Part of Amsterdam's cultural scene, exemplified by the film directors Theo van Gogh and Eddy Terstall, and the cartoonist 'Gregorius Nekschot', is also anti-Islamic, and by extension anti-immigrant. Van Gogh was assassinated in Amsterdam, in November 2004, by the Islamist Mohammed Bouyeri.
Official policy reflects the general xenophobic climate. All parties currently represented in the city council oppose immigration in principle (although all recognise that it is an economic necessity). Immigrants are regarded as a harmful element in society, which must be countered or defused. Consequently, policy specifically aimed at immigrant minorities is always negative: they are subject to specific prohibitions and obligations, but are offered no specific benefits. Forced assimilation is the main policy goal - paradoxically, since the general xenophobia makes assimilation impossible. It is also paradoxical, in the sense that it implies the immigrants will stay, whereas many ethnic Dutch clearly want them to leave. As in other large cities, Amsterdam does have an official policy to reduce the number of immigrants, using urban renewal. In some parts of the city, social housing is occupied almost entirely by allochtones. Demolition, and replacement by owner-occupied apartments, removes almost all of the existing inhabitants (they can't afford the new apartments), and 'whitens' the area. However, recent research indicates that the strategy has failed, in its tacit goal: the immigrant poor simply move to adjoining areas. [49] Compulsory dispersal of ethnic minorities out of major cities has been proposed as an option, but in the short term Amsterdam can not rehouse half its population in the region - and the regional municipalities would of course resist such plans.
The reverse option does work in the short term, as dissatisfied ethnic Dutch households leave the city - white flight. Although it is difficult to separate this from the general trend to suburbanisation, new housing up to 80 kilometres from Amsterdam attracts 'white' households disproportionately. When minorities also begin to move to the formerly 'white' suburban housing, secondary flows develop. The new city of Almere (100% suburban) was populated from Amsterdam, but what was originally a white flight was overtaken at the end of the 1990's, by allochtone suburban migration. [50] Almere now has its own flight migration, to new suburban housing further away. [51] In the newest suburb of IJburg, the borough council fears a similar flight has begun, although it is still under construction. [52]
Rich and poor
The average disposable income in Amsterdam (municipality, 2007) is € 25 200 per household and €12 600 per person. That varies from € 9 800 per person in the borough Bos en Lommer, to €16 000 in Zuider-Amstel. [53] The poorest households are concentrated in the inter-war and post-war suburbs, especially in western and south-eastern Amsterdam. [54] Differentials are sharper in the metropolitan region. The former dune villages near Haarlem, and the villages of the Gooi heathland, are well-known as high-income areas. Average household income in Bloemendaal (near Haarlem) is €45 200, the highest in the country. In Blaricum (Gooi) it is €42 600, and in neighbouring Laren €39 100. In Abcoude, a gentrified village just outside Amsterdam, it is €41 200. [55] The richest municipalities in the Netherlands are roughly clustered around Amsterdam, and the poorest in the north-east of the country. (Map)
In Amsterdam, 19% of the municipal population is classified as 'minimum-income' (the approximate equivalent of 'poverty line'), with an income under 110% of the 'legal social minimum'. Poverty is ethnic, and that is especially visible in families with children. 37% of Moroccan households, and 32% of Turkish households, are poor - as opposed to 13% of ethnic Dutch households. 46% of Moroccan children, and 43% of Antillian children, grow up in a poor family. [56] The statistics indicate that there is almost no escape from long-term poverty: after 3 years under the the poverty line, on state benefits, the chance of income rising above the poverty line is only 2%. [57]
Nominal unemployment (municipality, 2007) was 39 923, an unemployment rate of 7.4%. [53] However, those who do not qualify for benefit, usually do not register. Among 15-64 years olds, 151 400 were not economically active - almost four times the official unemployment rate. [58] The official rate varies from 4.7% in Zuideramstel, to 10% in Zuidoost. [53] In the past, the poor in the Netherlands were the unemployed. With a gradual shift to 'working poor', the remaining pool of unemployed has become a hard-core underclass, with multiple deprivation and multiple problems (illiteracy, criminal record, addiction, poor health, debt). Of those registered in Amsterdam in 2008 as 'available for work' (36 746), 23% are classified as totally unemployable. Only 9% are considered suitable to be sent to potential employers. Some of the rest are "reintegrated" by private companies, to little effect. In 2002-2008 national and local government paid €7 700 million to 2 100 such companies. [59] In Amsterdam, reintegration was effective (regular job for longer than six months) in only 11% of cases. [60] The persistence of hard-core unemployment has led to proposals, to institutionalise this underclass, and to create a separate sector of state-funded unskilled jobs, exempted from the minimum wage.
Health
The average male life expectancy in Amsterdam in 2002-2006 was 75.8 years, for females it was 80.4 years. Life expectancy is higher among immigrant groups, a phenomenon known as the 'healthy migrant effect', [61] but the Standard Mortality Rate is highest among Antillian males. [62] There are approximately 4 000 drug addicts (opiate addiction) in Amsterdam. [63]
Housing
Amsterdam (municipality) has a total housing stock of 384 323 units. [64] State-funded housing, built after the First World War, predominates. Much of it was built by housing associations, which tended to exclude the poorest households. The remaining 19th-century and early 20th-century private rental housing - once the refuge of the lowest-income groups - is being rapidly gentrified. (Much of it was lost to urban renewal anyway, after 1960). Gentrification is most intensive in the first ring of housing outside city wall (built 1880 to 1910). The neighbourhood De Pijp (just south of the city centre) is seen as archetypical for Dutch gentrification. The original apartments were very small: conversion usually means loss of two or three rental units, for each new unit.
Recent new housing (since about 1990) is mainly owner-occupied, or at the upper end of the state-funded rental sector. Except for temporary student housing, no housing is currently built for the poorest households. The resulting squeeze is concentrating them in areas built after the Second World War - during the Reconstruction (wederopbouw) period. Since the poor are generally allochtones, these are now recognised zones of ethnic tension, known under the euphemism "deprived neighbourhoods" (achterstandswijken). The issue is so sensitive, that the government tried to keep the list of the worst neighbourhoods secret. [65] The list was leaked in 2009: the worst area is in western Amsterdam. [66] The large-scale demolition programmes in those areas, have depressed total net growth in municipal housing stock - only 795 units in 2006. [67] Since declining household size increases demand on the near-static municipal stock, suburbanisation into the metropolitan region will probably continue. (The region has 986 502 housing units, 14% of national stock). [68]
History
Until the early Middle Ages, the area of the present city-region was marshland, and almost uninhabited. [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] The northern boundary (limes) of the Roman empire lay 40 km south of Amsterdam, along the Oude Rijn - then the main channel of the Rhine delta. It flows through Utrecht and Leiden, into the sea at Katwijk. North of the boundary, there was a Roman fort at Velsen, but apparently no other Roman settlements. The higher ground near the coastal dunes (20 km west of Amsterdam) was settled by the early Middle Ages. The oldest villages of the County of Holland, and its historical capitals The Hague and Haarlem, are all on this north-south strip. 20 km east of Amsterdam are the glacial ridges of the Gooi region, also settled early on. To the south-east, the city of Utrecht (originally a Roman fort), was a leading religious centre, before Amsterdam was even recorded. The marshes around the Amstel river were settled from Utrecht northwards, under supervision of the Prince-Bishop of Utrecht (the drainage required a collective organisation).
Amsterdam arose on the banks of Amstel river, where it flowed into the tidal estuary of the river IJ - which had been lined with dikes by about 1200. It was not the earliest settlement in the marshes: Diemen, Sloten, and Ouderkerk aan de Amstel are older. [75] There is no trace of any habitation at Amsterdam before 1200. [14] The Lords of Amstel exercised local power over the marsh settlements, nominally for the Prince-Bishop. [76] Haarlem and Utrecht remained the political centres, until the late Middle Ages. Amsterdam is therefore a young city, by the standards of European capitals. Its first appearance in the historical record is in October 1275, when Count Floris V awarded it a toll privilege. Both banks of the river Amstel were settled, although the oldest houses found so far were on the west side, on Nieuwendijk. [77] Around 1264-1275, a dam was built in the river, which also served to link both banks, and by 1308, a lock had been built for shipping. [78] The dam turned the mouth of the river into a simple harbour (the present Damrak canal, near the station).
The IJ divided the region, but also provided a circuitous route to the sea. Around 1300 Amsterdam was granted city rights, a sign of its expansion, as it undertook long-distance trade by ship. (It was not a real 'city' even by the standards of the time, with about 1 000 inhabitants). [79] Because the North Sea was so dangerous for the small ships, the main north-south route ran from Hamburg on the Elbe, through the Zuiderzee, and then by river through Utrecht or Haarlem to the Maas-Schelde estuary, and on to Brugge (Bruges). The route did not use the Amstel. [80] In 1323, Amsterdam was named as a toll point for beer imports from Hamburg - the beginnings of structural trade with that city, and soon with its trading partners in the Baltic. [81] At first the merchants and skippers merely paid toll at Amsterdam, but from around 1360 Amsterdam's own ships traded directly with the Baltic. [82] That pattern persisted until the end of the Middle Ages: trade with Hanseatic cities such as Danzig, Riga, Königsberg, Lubeck, Bremen. Hamburg, and Emden. [83] Grain was the main import: Amsterdam exported cloth and herring, and from about 1450, re-exported wine and salt from western France, [84] and in the 16th century green soap. [85] The export of such banal products helped Amsterdam develop its own trading contacts, rather than simply shipping for Hanseatic merchants. It gradually displaced Brugge (Bruges), as the Hanseatic import point in the Low Countries. [86] Around 1565, the merchant Guicciardini described it as the second port of the Low Countries. [87]
In legend, Amsterdam was the home of merchant capitalism, no less. In fact, Antwerp led in the development of commercial capitalism, [88] and there was another reason for the city's growth - a Catholicism which the later (mainly Protestant) historians found irrational and distasteful. During the 15th century Amsterdam became a centre of religious devotion, and many new cloisters and convents were founded. [89] It was also a place of pilgrimage. On 15th March 1345, a dying man was given communion, and promptly vomited the Holy Host. When the vomit was thrown into the fire, the Holy Host survived unscathed. [90] Such host miracles were popular in the late Middle Ages: a special church was built on the site of the Miracle of Amsterdam, and a pilgrimage trade soon developed. [91] The main road to Amsterdam from Sloten, the Heiligeweg or Holy Road, was built to facilitate this traffic.
The Reformation and its consequences transformed the city. By the end of the 15th century, the church had become increasingly commercialised and began to attract criticism. By 1520 there were organised dissident religious groups. [92] From 1530 to 1538, Amsterdam was a centre of the Anabaptists in the Low Countries. They tried unsuccessfully to seize the city in 1535, resulting in an official policy of repression against dissident sects. [93] By that time, the former County of Holland was part of the Burgundian Circle (Burgundischer Reichskreis, approximately the Low Countries), created by the administrative reform of the Holy Roman Empire under Maximilian I. Holland had around 275 000 inhabitants (1514), [94] and Amsterdam around 10 000 in 1500, [29] but the southern half of the Reichskreis (present-day Flanders and northern France) was more important, in terms of population and economy. The religious conflict, which finally erupted in 1566, ultimately led to the emergence of a new state on its northern half, with a specifically Dutch national identity. Nationalist historians later presented the events as a 'war of national liberation' from Spain, but that is far from the truth. Calvinist religious fervour - which originated in France - turned a regional dispute over the authority of the monarch, into a religious war. Inside the present Netherlands, it became a religious civil war, where a radical Protestant minority seized Catholic-majority areas, and subjected them to a religious repression that lasted three centuries. The Netherlands was created as an explicitly Protestant nation-state - and would probably not have existed without the Reformation.
The ambiguous role of Amsterdam contradicts the simplistic nationalist version of Dutch history. The city was not 'occupied by Spain', but was controlled by a local oligarchy, within a diffuse late-mediaeval administration. As dissatisfaction with central authority merged with a religious uprising, the city at first sided with the Habsburg authorities in Brussels. The repression of the Protestants under Charles V, and especially under his son Phillip II, ultimately triggered the Iconoclastic Fury of 1566. It started in the southern Low Countries, and spread northwards. Calvinists began to assemble at large gatherings - at first in secret in the countryside, then openly, near the cities. Preachers incited them to destroy religious images ('idolatry'), and churches were stormed. In Amsterdam, that happened in August 1566. Order was restored, the city remained Catholic, but the repression was eased, and Calvinists were allowed to preach. [95] Ironically these concessions were then partly revoked by William of Orange, at that time still loyal to the Crown. [96] The Habsburg governor, Margarita de Austria y Parma, revoked them all in 1567, and returned to repression. [97] Amsterdam was now on the brink of a religious civil war, and the Habsburg authorities propped up the weak city government, by stationing a garrison. Many Calvinists fled, to north German cities such as Emdem and Bremen. [98] The city was rigourously re-catholicised, and the death penalty imposed on remaining Calvinist leaders. However, by 1572 Amsterdam was politically isolated, the only large city in Holland still loyal to the Church and the Habsburgs. [99] In that year, the Calvinist exiles began military raids, starting a full-scale war. Fighting spread over the western Netherlands, accompanied by atrocities against Catholics - later censored from propagandistic official histories. The Protestant forces soon controlled most of Holland north of the IJ, bringing the civil war within the present city boundaries: Catholic monks were murdered at Ransdorp, 5 kilometres from the city.
In May 1578, the Protestant (by then predominantly Calvinist) faction in Amsterdam seized power, in a bloodless coup, the 'Alteration'. [100] They did not slaughter the Catholics, but they did not promote tolerance either, as later myth suggested. At once, they began a purge of public Catholicism: a systematic iconoclasm, and seizure of churches and church property. [101] The despised church of the Miracle of 1345 was turned into a stable. [102] Catholics were excluded from public office (except in charitable institutions). [103] They could usually hold services in private, but occasionally these too were raided, and those present fined. [104] Jews were later (1616) allowed synagogues, but forbidden to marry Christian women, to have extra-marital sexual relations with them, or to employ them as servants. [105] (These provisions later formed Articles 1, 2, and 3 of the Nazi 'Law on the Protection of German Blood' in 1935). [106] Catholicism remained illegal, and the elite Protestant, [107] until Napoleonic armies enforced reform. Surprisingly, the official (Calvinist) Reformed Church remained a minority religion: around 10% in 1600, rising to about 45% around 1700. [108] Other Protestant sects, such as the Baptists and Lutherans, were tolerated, but had little influence. [109]
As the Habsburg forces regained control of the southern Low Countries, and lost control of the north, the economy and population also shifted. Antwerp - the leading port of the Low Countries - was blockaded in 1585. It lost half its population, as its economy collapsed. [110] Amsterdam soon appropriated its trade, and Dutch expeditions and voyages of discovery around 1600 created new intercontinental trade flows. [111] Religious persecution in the south also drove many Calvinists, including part of the merchant elite, to Holland. Migration - mainly from the present Netherlands, and also from present-day Belgium and Germany - [112] fuelled the growth of Amsterdam. In 1600 about 70% of its inhabitants were migrants. It grew to 65 000 in 1600, 100 000 in 1622, and 220 000 in 1680, making it Europe's third city after London and Paris. [113]
In its Golden Age, Amsterdam was the leading economic and cultural centre of Europe. It expanded in four phases (1585, 1596, 1610-1615 and 1656-62) - the last two including the renowned three-canal ring. [114] The growth was well-planned for the time, with industry and residential areas separated. [115] However, the city was also at war for much of the time, [116] and each expansion included new and stronger defences. The borders of the new Dutch state were front lines, and eventually stabilised with the conquest of Catholic North-Brabant. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ratified the emergence of a new Netherlands state, in some respects an early nation-state, but without an effective central government. By that time, Amsterdam trading companies, such as the VOC (United East India Company, 1602) and WIC (West India Company, 1621), had established what C. R. Boxer described as the Dutch Seaborne Empire. [117] Although only Suriname and the East Indies became true colonies, none of this activity was intended to benefit the natives. The WIC shipped slaves to the sugar plantations of Suriname, and shipped the sugar to Amsterdam, which became a centre of sugar refining in Europe. [118] (Slavery in Suriname lasted until 1863). [119] Amsterdam's traditional trade with the Baltic and northern Europe was eclipsed by the new colonial trades. [120]
The new Republic of the Netherlands (in reality more of a monarchy) entangled itself in conflicts with other European powers, who by this time were more than a match for it. [116] From 1672 onwards, it lost influence, and in the 18th century it stagnated. For a century, Amsterdam's dominance in trade buffered its prosperity: it had an unrivalled infrastructure of banks, currency exchange, wholesalers, and shippers. It had a well-developed domestic market in the Netherlands [121] accessed by new canals, [122] and some trade-related industry, such as shipbuilding and textiles (cotton print). [123] The mercantilism of other European powers, and the rise of competitors such as London and Hamburg, finally eroded its supremacy. [124] The ruling oligarchy became increasingly closed. [125] Amsterdam's population declined after 1735, from 240 000 to a low of 183 000 in 1815. [35] Incomes were extremely unequal: around 1740, the richest 1.5% of households had 18% of total incomes, the poorest 50% had only 18%. [126] After 1770 poverty increased: by 1799 18% of households lived on relief, and since conditions were strict that underestimates true poverty. [127] By the end of the 18th century, Amsterdam was a city in decline. [128]
An abortive revolution failed in 1787, when Prussian troops intervened. [129] Again, events elsewhere were decisive: revolutionary French armies invaded the Netherlands in 1794, and initiated a period of Napoleonic reform. On 18 January 1795, a revolutionary committee seized Amsterdam, ahead of the advancing French army. [130] Amsterdam was for a time (1808-1810) the capital of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland. (Napoleon first appointed his brother as king, and later annexed the country to France). [131] The surviving mediaeval structures (dominated by the oligarchs of Amsterdam) were replaced by a more centralised national government. [132] The Jews (10% of the population) and the Catholics (30%) were emancipated from the civil restrictions imposed since 1578, and the first new catholic church was built. [133] The economy was also liberalised, and the Amsterdam guilds abolished. [134] After Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig in 1813, French troops left: the urban oligarchies were restored. [135] [136] King Willem I took the oath in Amsterdam in 1814, symbolising the restoration, under a now-formalised monarchy. [137] After the Battle of Waterloo (1815), the victorious allies created an enlarged United Kingdom of the Netherlands (most of the Low Countries) ruled by the House of Orange. Its economic policy was protectionist, to support the emerging industrialisation in the south (Wallonia) - at the expense of Amsterdam, which saw its hegemony eroded, as national administration and policy developed. [138]
Belgium seceded in 1830, shrinking the remaining Kingdom of the Netherlands to its present size. At first slowly, the country followed the transformation of economy and society associated with the Industrial Revolution. (Around 1855 factories still employed only 10% of Amsterdam's workforce). [139] The first railway line was opened between Amsterdam and Haarlem in 1839. The 80-km North-Holland Canal to Den Helder (1824) improved access to the port, by-passing the shallows of the Zuider Zee. The population grew, after 1860 by natural increase (births exceeded deaths, as public health improved), and it reached 264 000 in 1870. [35] The city remained an oligarchy: only 14% of adult males could vote, and then only for an electoral college, and the mayors still came from the richest elite families. [136] In an almost stagnant economy, multiple intermediaries imposed themselves between producer and consumer, all with vested interests. From 1850, however, as in neighbouring countries, liberalism became increasingly influential (at least at national level), and many economic privileges were abolished. [140]
Online map collection, 1796-1941: www.amsterdamhistorie.nl
Around 1870, the transformation accelerated. The unification of Germany led to its rapid industrialisation (although Rotterdam got most of the trade, becoming the main port of the Rhine). The Suez Canal opened in 1869, shortening the route to the Dutch East Indies, for the colonial trade. In 1867, the North Sea Canal opened - from Amsterdam straight to the North Sea, through the dunes. The accompanying reclamation restructured the regional landscape: the IJ estuary was reclaimed from both sides, leaving the canal in the middle. Four main rail lines now radiated from Amsterdam: to The Hague and Rotterdam via Haarlem, to Alkmaar via Zandam, to Amersfoort and Berlin, and to the south of the country and the Rhineland, via Utrecht. In 1889 the new Central Station was opened, linking all these lines. (The Amsterdam elite had opposed this project, and the North Sea Canal, fearing harm to shipping and trade). [141]
Amsterdam now began to industrialise in earnest - by 1900 half the male employees worked in industry [142] - and to expand outside the city walls. The 1877 Kalff Plan allowed private builders to create a ring of cheap housing around the city. [143] Early suburbanisation also began, around Haarlem and in the Gooi region (around Hilversum). The flight of the upper-middle class was logical enough: the population grew faster than housing stock, and the canals were still sewers, as in the Middle Ages. In 1858, 8% of the population lived in cellars. [144] The overcrowding, disease, and poverty led to reform movements, such as the public health lobby led by doctors, [145] and the emergence of a labour movement. Religious tensions between Protestants and Catholics (one-quarter of the population) [146] also re-emerged, and the anti-modernist fundamentalist Abraham Kuyper led a split in the official Reformed Church. [147]
Photographs of Amsterdam 1860-1900, Jacob Olie: City Archives
Photographs of Amsterdam 1890-1910, G. H. Breitner: City Archives
In response to 'sectarian' tensions, the system of pillarisation emerged at the beginning of the 20th century - the segregation of social life by religion and political allegiance. Separate schools and hospitals for each community became the norm. In Amsterdam, where housing associations built most new housing, an extraordinary residential segregation developed: one street might be 100% Catholic, the next 100% Jewish, depending on who had built it. [148] Many of the reform and labour movements coalesced in the new Social-Democratic Party (SDAP, 1894), which formed its own 'pillar' - ultimately with its own housing, inhabited solely by its supporters. In 1901 it got 24% of the votes in municipal elections, by 1907 35%, and by 1913 43%. [149] Labour conflicts were often violent: troops were used to break large strikes in 1903, and in 1911, when they opened fire on strikers and their supporters. [150]
The Netherlands remained neutral in the First World War, but trade was disrupted, and the poor suffered as food rations were gradually reduced. When they began to loot warehouses, in a desperate search for rumoured potato stocks, troops were again sent to crush them. [151] By 1918 the elite feared a Russian-style revolution, but managed to suppress some feeble attempts. As in Germany, its failure led to a right-wing reaction: nationalist-monarchist demonstrations were organised in the 'dangerous city' of Amsterdam, a pattern which continued for decades. [152] Despite the tensions, the urban infrastructure improved dramatically, in the early decades of the 20th century. The tram network was acquired and expanded, slum clearance began, the first large-scale expansion plans were approved, and Schiphol was designated as a national airport. (Roads were so bad, however, that it was best reached by boat until 1928. The city bought it and began expansion, despite tiny passenger numbers). [153]
The global depression of the 1930's hit hard, in a city where many workers still lived just above the poverty line. Soon, 20% were unemployed. When, in 1934, the meagre unemployment allowances were reduced, troops were again used to quell rioting, leaving six dead. [154] Political tensions increased: the Dutch Nazi Party NSB opened its Amsterdam branch in 1932, although they never got more than 11% of the vote there. [155] However, in the end, the shock was external. The Nazi-German invasion of May 1940 disrupted the beginnings of economic recovery. Although the Netherlands was not treated in the same way as Poland, let alone Russia, the persecution of the Jews after 1942 was ruthless. It was on German orders - but implemented by the city authorities, the Amsterdam Police, and collaborators among the Jewish elite. In September 1940, the City Council sacked Jewish employees, and began to segregate the Jewish population. In 1941 the police began arresting Communists and Jews for deportation to Germany. Jewish property and firms were confiscated, Jews were excluded from schools and public places. In April 1942 Adolf Eichmann visited Amsterdam: the yellow star was introduced, and the mass round-up of Jews began. The first deportation train left in July 1942. [156] Most of the Jewish population were efficiently deported and killed. In late 1944, conditions worsened for the entire population: the front line cut traffic with the southern Netherlands, the only remaining source of food. In Amsterdam, the death rate tripled, and thousands starved during the resulting 'Hunger Winter'. [157] Social structures disintegrated in early 1945, as desperate plundering took hold: even the trees in the parks were cut for fuel. [158] Facing inevitable defeat, the German commanders began to co-operate with the Resistance forces. [159] In May 1945, Canadian troops entered a largely intact but pauperised city.
The post-liberation chaos gave way to a period of sober reconstruction. [160] At first the Communist Party was influential, winning one-third of the seats in the City Council, and there were tensions due to the colonial war in Indonesia. The Communists were soon marginalised in the Cold War climate (their party offices were stormed after the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956). [161] The decades of economic growth after the Second World War allowed an escape from massive poverty. With an unprecedented construction programme, the housing stock caught up with the population - so fast, that it would not all fit in Amsterdam. By the 1960's, expanded towns such as Purmerend, and two entirely new cities on reclaimed land (Lelystad and Almere), were designated to absorb the growth. In 1957 construction of a new Schiphol airport began, and from the 1960's it became a major factor in the economic structure, ultimately as Europe's fifth airport. Although overshadowed by Rotterdam, the port also expanded, making the old docks obsolete. [162]
The 1960's saw increasing social unrest with a 'counter-cultural' origin, which the city's elite did not understand, and at first tried to suppress. The tense atmosphere contributed to rioting by construction workers in 1966: after that, the elite shifted to a policy of partial accommodation, bringing the Communist Party into city government. By then the communists had been eclipsed by new movements, such as Provo and the Kabouter (Gnome) party. Their highly publicised actions gave the city an international image, as a countercultural centre. [163] Insensitive construction of a metro line through the old city, also acted as a catalyst for the 'clash of cultures' in the 1970's. [164] Illegal occupation of empty buildings, which began on a small scale in the 1960's, also escalated at the end of the 1970's. Police and squatters increasingly clashed, culminating in large-scale rioting during the coronation of Queen Beatrix in 1980. [165] At the same time, with less media attention, immigration was slowly effecting a more fundamental change in the city.
In the 1980's and early 1990's growth faltered, and the suburbanisation left the city with a concentration of low-income households. The economic recovery from the mid-1990's accelerated social division, between a well-educated middle class living in gentrified areas, and a marginalised population of unemployed and working poor concentrated in the early post-war districts. By then, mass immigration had made the division ethnic and religious, resulting in a de facto dual society in Amsterdam. A generally successful ethnic Dutch population, faces a generally disadvantaged and poor - and often Muslim - immigrant population. This unplanned and largely unforeseen divide, became the most striking feature of the city, as it entered the 21st century.
Economy
The Netherlands has a predominantly service based economy, the Province of North-Holland more so, and Amsterdam (municipality) even more so. Industry contributes only 13.3% to national GDP, financial and business services 27.7% (2006). [166] The economy is in recession since 2008, with an officially projected decline of 3.5% in GDP in 2009, [167] the worst fall since the 1930's.
Employment per economic sector, 2005 [168]
Amsterdam North-Holland Netherlands
Agriculture 0 1 1
Extraction and industry 7 13 18
Commercial services 59 55 47
Non-commercial services 34 32 34
The regional economy grew in 2007, by almost 4%. Employment increased by 2%, to 432 338 jobs, a record. Growth was concentrated in the services sector, and was ethnically differentiated. Even when there were many jobs available, unemployment remained high among non-western minorities (Turks, Moroccans). [169] Although the region's economy is now vulnerable during recession, a major rise in unemployment has not yet been reported.
Total employment in the municipality is 423 241 persons (working more than 12 hours per week). [170] Of that 19 083 work in industry, 597 in the energy sector, and 11 571 in construction. The primary sector is tiny, with only 608 employees. The rest, over 90%, are employed in some form of service provision. 54 321, about 13%, work in health care and social work. There are seven hospitals: OLVG , van Leeuwenhoek (oncology), Slotervaart , BovenIJ , Lucas/Andreas , and the academic hospitals of the two universities, AMC and VUMC. The education sector employs 27 406 people, about 6% of total employment.
The financial services sector is the most prominent among the services: it is disproportionately large in Amsterdam, reflecting the city's economic history. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Amsterdam was the world's leading financial centre, until London displaced it. [171] In 2005, the financial sector employed 177 000 people in the Netherlands (4.6% of total employment) and produced 6% of GNP. In Amsterdam (region) the sector employed 46 500 people in 2007, and contributed 22.5% to regional GDP. [171] Amsterdam is rated 23rd in the Global Financial Centres Index, GFCI. Although it emphasises business climate, rather than scale of employment, it does reflect the perceptions of the financial sector itself. In Europe, Amsterdam is outranked in the GFCI by Zurich, Frankfurt, Geneva, Dublin, Paris, Luxembourg and Glasgow. [172] The list of largest employers in Amsterdam (municipality), also indicates the lack of major manufacturing industry:
Largest employers, 2007 [171]
1 Municipality Amsterdam 16.400
2 ING Bank 13.500
3 University of Amsterdam (UvA) 11.500
4 ABN AMRO Bank 10.200
5 Free University (VU) 9.100
6 Regional Police 5.700
7 GVB, public transport 4.000
8 UWV , social insurance 3.700
9 Royal TNT Post 3.100
10 I.B.M./Lotus 5 3.000
11 Ahold, supermarkets 2.800
12 Maxeda, retail holding 2.800
13 Justice Ministry (prison guards) 2.700
14 Onze Lieve Vrouwe , hospital 2.500
15 De Telegraaf, newspaper 2.500
16 Nuon, electricity 2.400
17 HvA, polytechnic 2.300
18 Delta Lloyd, insurance 2.100
19 ROC, vocational education 2.100
20 Lucas/Andreas hospital 2.000
In the Netherlands, the Information and Communication Technology sector (ICT) is well developed. In Amsterdam, the sector employed 40 564 people in 2007, about 10% of total employment. [173] The 'creative industries' - the arts, media and entertainment, advertising, public relations - employed 32 594 people, or 7% of total employment, including 10 084 in the arts. [174]
Office employment in the service sector is concentrated at clusters of office buildings, near motorways and stations. The largest in Amsterdam are at Sloterdijk Station, Station Zuid, Amstel Station, and Station Bijlmer ArenA. In the metropolitan region, the largest similar clusters are at Hoofddorp (just south of Schiphol Airport) and Almere. In Haarlem, a historic city with an administrative function as provincial capital, office employment is more dispersed. In the region, the media and entertainment sectors are clustered around Hilversum, the centre of Dutch broadcasting since its early days. The main employment location is the national media centre (Mediapark), on the northern edge of Hilversum.
 |
| North Sea Canal. locks, and Corus steelworks at IJmuiden, CC image Erwyn van der Meer |
Within the metropolitan region, heavy industry is concentrated along the North Sea Canal, including the western port zone of Amsterdam itself. The only major heavy industry is the Corus steelworks at IJmuiden, opened in 1918 as the Royal Dutch Blast Furnaces and Steel Factories ("Hoogovens"). [175] It produces 7 million tons of steel annually, and employs 9 100 people. [176] Light industry, trade and distribution are dispersed over industrial and business parks all over the region. [177] Since every municipality wants its own, there is excess capacity: they cover approximately 1 200 hectares in the metropolitan region. [178] Since they are usually built on greenfield sites, their effect on the landscape has become a planning issue. [179]
Agriculture is still a significant aspect of the regional economy, more so than the direct employment would suggest. The region traditionally had a grassland monoculture, some of it on fragmented island fields accessible only by boat. The small cattle farms close to urban areas, including some in the municipality of Amsterdam itself, have survived primarily because the landscape itself is legally protected. (Further from the built-up area, larger modernised cattle farms are economically viable). The arable land in the region is concentrated on the clay soils of Haarlemmermeer polder, a former lake drained in 1852. The high productivity of these farms helped them to survive competition from airport-related land uses. Flower-bulb growing is a traditional industry on the sandy soils behind the coastal dunes, but around Haarlem it has been displaced by urbanisation, shifting south into the Province of South-Holland. There is a major concentration of greenhouse horticulture, specialising in flowers, around Aalsmeer. On the east side of Aalsmeer is the world's largest flower auction (formerly VBA, now Flora) [180] with one million m2. It is only 6 km from Schiphol Airport, and is a major centre of international flower trade, exporting 85% of its traded flowers. [181]
Tourism is a prominent sector of the Amsterdam economy, but the city is not dependent on it. Amsterdam (municipality) registered 8.7 million overnight stays in 2006. The total number of hotel guests was 4.7 million, so the average stay is short, only two days. The tourist sector employs the equivalent of 34 700 full-time employees. [182] In 2007 there were 351 hotels in the municipality, and 5 campsites. [183] There were 41 743 hotel beds: about one-fifth in 5-star hotels, and one-quarter in budget accommodation. [184] ('Budget' is a relative term, since hotel prices in the Netherlands are generally high). 75% of the overnight stays are from Europe, and 13% from the United States. [185] At regional level, the only other major tourist destination is the coast, which (apart from the harbour at IJmuiden) consists entirely of beaches. The North Sea Coast attracts 13% of all Netherlands domestic tourism, and 21% of incoming (foreign) tourism. [186] Haarlem, the only other historical city in the metropolitan region, is also a tourist destination in its own right, although not comparable to Amsterdam. The regional tourism office ATCB expects a 3% fall in tourism over 2008, due to the economic crisis: recovery to 2007 levels is not expected until 2010. [187]
Main tourist attractions in Amsterdam, 2006 [188]
Canal cruises 3 143 000
ArenA stadium (football, concerts) 2 047 000
Van Gogh Museum 1 677 000
Rijksmuseum 1 138 000
Artis Zoo / Aquarium 1 208 000
Anne Frank House 983 000
Holland Casino 951 000
Diamond workshops 752 000
Sex Museum Amsterdam 531 000
Madame Tussauds 464 000
The Amsterdam conference and exhibition centre RAI attracted 1.5 million visitors: of these only 112 000 attended international conferences. [188] Visits to the red-light district, estimated at 2.5 million, [189] are not included in these statistics. There are three concentrations of window prostitution: the main red-light district (378 windows in 2007), and two smaller clusters with 119 windows. [190] A 2008 policy document for the red-light district seeks to halve window prostitution, and concentrate it in two streets. [191] In 2007, there were 126 registered 'workspaces' in brothels. The municipal health department estimates that about 1 000 prostitutes, on average, are at work each day, in window and club prostitution. However, the turnover is very high, and in a given year about 8 000 will have worked in Amsterdam. Women working for the approximately 100 escort services are not registered, and not included in those statistics. [192]
Amsterdam (municipality) has 10% of all the bars and restaurants in the Netherlands, and 8% of all snack and fast-food units - a total of 3 953 units in 2004. Almost half are in the city centre (borough Centrum) and they employ about 5% of the total workforce. The number of traditional bars (cafés) is declining, with about one-fifth closing since the 1990's. [193] Amsterdam also has one-third of all "coffeeshops" in the country: the English word is a decades-old Dutch euphemism for a bar/shop selling cannabis products. Official policy has shifted from acceptance to systematic closure: the coffeeshops are strictly regulated, can no longer sell alcohol, and since July 2008 smoking is also forbidden. They can be closed by the mayor for any infringement of the strict regulations, and numbers fell from an estimated 550 around 1990, [193] to 228 in 2008. [194] National policy is now to close all coffeeshops "near" schools - 500 metres was suggested but that would close all but 16 coffeeshops in Amsterdam. [195] Amsterdam has adopted a 200-metre limit, implying closure of 46 coffeeshops. [194] Additionally, half of the coffeeshops in the red-light district (described as 'criminogenic') will be closed. [196] [191]
Government
Municipalities in the Netherlands are governed by a College of Mayor and Aldermen (College van Burgemeester en Wethouders). It is supervised by a Council (Raad, Gemeenteraad). Since the Napoleonic period, the mayor is appointed by the central government in The Hague. The aldermen are chosen by the council, and each has a specialised portfolio: the mayor always handles public order issues. Almost all Colleges are coalitions. Municipal elections are held every four years: the current electoral term is 2006-2010.
The municipality of Amsterdam is currently governed by a coalition of the Labour Party (Partij van de Arbeid, PvdA) and Green Left (GroenLinks). Since the Second World War, the PvdA has dominated Amsterdam politics, and the national government usually appointed PvdA members as mayors. The party's support has eroded over the years, however, falling to 10% nationally. The current mayor, Marius Job Cohen, is widely considered a possible PvdA Prime Minister - assuming the party led a future coalition, which is unlikely on its present strength. The other members of the College (August 2008) are: [197]
- Lodewijk Asscher (PvdA) - deputy mayor, finance, economy, education.
- Carolien Gehrels (PvdA) - culture, media, sport.
- Tjeerd Herrema (PvdA) - transport, infrastructure, housing.
- Freek Ossel (PvdA) - social and ethnic policy, port and airport.
- Maarten van Poelgeest (Green Left) - urban planning.
- Marijke Vos (Green Left) - health, environment.
The current composition of the Council (August 2008) is: [198]
- 20 seats PvdA, Labour Party
- 8 seats VVD (market liberals with nationalist-conservative values)
- 7 seats GroenLinks, Green Left
- 6 seats Socialist Party (left-populist)
- 2 seats CDA, Christian-Democrats (until 2009 the largest party at national level)
- 2 seats D66 (vaguely 'centre-left' liberal party)
The orthodox-protestant parties - SGP and Christian Union (CU) - play almost no role in Amsterdam local politics. Populist local parties have had little success at municipal level, although they are represented in some boroughs. Since all the elected parties are ethnic Dutch in origin and values, the allochtone half of the population is unrepresented in municipal politics: attempts to form ethnic-minority parties have failed.
At the European Parliament elections in June 2009, the Labour vote collapsed, to under 15 %. [199] D66 is now the largest party, with 21%, followed closely by Green Left at 20%. The real winner is however, the anti-Islam Freedom Party (PVV) led by Geert Wilders. With no party organisation, and no previous election record, it took 13% of the vote. In four boroughs with high immigrant populations, it is now the largest party, indicating an increasing polarisation. In some surviving "white working class" neighbourhoods, it got one-third of the vote. In the metropolitan region, the tourist village of Volendam voted 50% for Wilders, his highest score in the whole country. [200]
Boroughs
The Netherlands has a three-tier system of local government: national, provincial, and municipal. However, large cites can devolve municipal powers to stadsdelen or boroughs. Amsterdam is divided into 14 stadsdelen. Their creation was controversial, and a 2008 survey [201] showed only 25% support them in their present form - about one-fifth of voters support their abolition. As of May 2010, they will be reformed into seven large boroughs, with a minimum population of 80 000. [202]
Boroughs, with population as of 01 January 2008. [203]
Centrum: the old city inside the former city walls. Population 81 318.
Amsterdam-Noord: north of the IJ, rural until 1920. Population 86 930.
Both of these stay unchanged in the reform.
Built largely 1870-1940
Bos en Lommer 30 045
Westerpark 34 320
Oud-West 31 484
De Baarsjes 33 767
These four will be merged.
Zeeburg (includes IJburg) 48 673
Oost-Watergraafsmeer 59 044
These two will merge.
Oud-Zuid 83 319 - will merge with Zuideramstel.
Built mainly after the Second World War
Geuzenveld-Slotermeer 41 314
Osdorp 46 479
Slotervaart 44 185
These three will merge.
Zuidoost 78 922 - status unchanged in the reform.
Zuideramstel 47 135
The port zone Westpoort, with only 355 inhabitants, is nominally a borough, but is administered by the municipality.
Symbols
The flag and coat of arms of the city carry three white Saint Andrew's crosses, on a black vertical bar on a red background. The coat of arms is surmounted by the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire (subsequently of Austria): the symbol was awarded as part-payment for loans, by Emperor Maximilian I. The city's motto is Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig or 'Heroic, Determined, Compassionate'. It was invented after the Second World War, to promote the fiction that the city's inhabitants resisted en masse the deportation of the Jews.
Stadsregio
The City-Region (Stadsregio) is not an administrative unit, but an organisation for inter-municipal co-operation. Numerous proposals for regional government in the Netherlands (perhaps replacing the provinces), have been abandoned due to local opposition - only the Police have been fully regionalised. The Stadsregio has no directly elected councillors, but to maintain the semblance of a local government unit, each municipality delegates councillors to a "Regional Council" (Regioraad). This council has 57 members, and meets only four times a year. [204] There is an executive, headed ex-officio by Mayor Cohen of Amsterdam.
Police
There are 25 regional police forces in the Netherlands, replacing the former municipal police and the rural gendarmerie. Each force is headed by a Chief of Police (korpschef), but the political authority rests with the mayor of the largest city in the region. Amsterdam, and the Stadsregio south of the IJ (but excluding Haarlemmermeer with Schiphol airport), are policed by Amsterdam-Amstelland Police. The force has almost 6 000 officers for over 900 000 inhabitants. [205] It is overwhelmingly ethnic Dutch, in a city where the majority of young people are not: that inevitably leads to tensions. Attempts to alter its composition have failed: it does recruit allochtones, but a racist police culture encourages them to leave the force early. Relations with the public are worst in western Amsterdam: there, the city has recruited private security firms, to target Moroccan youths.
The Stadsregio north of the IJ is policed by the Zaanstreek-Waterland Police, a smaller force, with 850 officers for about 310 000 inhabitants. [206] There are now plans to merge it with the Amsterdam force. [207] The area around Schiphol airport is policed by the Kennemerland Police, with headquarters in Haarlem. However, airport security and border controls are the responsibility of the Marechausee, a "police organisation with military status" which also acts as the Military Police. [208] The larger Metropolitan Region also extends into the police regions of Gooi en Vechtstreek, and Flevoland.
Fire Service
As with the police, the former municipal fire brigades are being re-organised into 25 regional fire services (not all correspond to a police region). In the Stadsregio south of the IJ, the regional Brandweer Amsterdam-Amstelland [209] consists mainly of the former Amsterdam fire brigade, and employs 1 100 people. In the Stadsregio north of the IJ, there is a regional fire service authority, Brandweer Zaanstreek-Waterland, but all nine municipalities still have their own fire brigade. [210]
Infrastructure, transport, and utilities
Port
Amsterdam is historically a port city, the largest in the Netherlands until the 20th century. Port expansion on artificial islands (such as Prinseneiland) began in the Middle Ages: most were built between 1590 and 1650. [211] That pattern continued until the late 19th century, when the eastern dock islands were built. [212] However the North Sea Canal (1876) fundamentally altered port expansion. Instead of dock islands, basins were excavated along the new canal, putting each new basin nearer the sea. That process accelerated, when shipping technology required new types of dock (containers and bulk terminals). From the 1960's on, the western port zone made all previous docks obsolete. Administratively, the Port of Amsterdam now includes all facilities along the North Sea Canal, to its mouth at IJmuiden, 30 km from the old port.
In 2006, 5 742 ships arrived at port, unloaded 42 million tons of cargo, and loaded 19 million tons. [213] Imports are dominated by refined oil products (12 million tons) and coal (10 million tons) [214] There is no crude oil traffic: it is concentrated at Rotterdam. The old port area still has passenger traffic at the Passenger Terminal Amsterdam, for cruise ships (117 in 2008), [215] and at nearby moorings for river cruise ships. The large sea-going cruise ships bring about 125 000 passengers annually to Amsterdam, the river cruise ships about 100 000. [216]
Inland shipping and canals
Inland waterways in the Netherlands are classified, by the largest type of ship they can carry. The main route through Amsterdam, via the North Sea Canal, the IJ, and the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal, is navigable for four-lighter combinations (Class VIb, capacity 7 050 to 12 000 tons). The route to Gouda, via the Amstel River, is navigable for a Kempenaar type ship, Class II, 400 to 650 tons. The route to Leiden, via the ring canal of the Haarlemmermeer Polder, is navigable for Dortmund-Ems Canal type ships, Class III, 650 to 1250 tons. (This route passes through western Amsterdam, under 12 lifting bridges). The route north, via the Zaan River and the North-Holland Canal, is navigable for Rhine-Herne Canal type ships, Class IV, 1250 to 2050 tons. Although it is not a canal, the IJsselmeer lake is also an important inland shipping route, to the north of the country. It is accessed from the IJ through the Oranjesluizen locks, 4 km east of Centraal Station. [217] In 2005, Amsterdam loaded 13.6 million tons of inland shipping freight, and unloaded 4.6 million tons. [218] Many towns in the Metropolitan Region are accessible by classified canals. The classification starts at 250-ton ships: many older and smaller canals also exist, often intensively used for recreational purposes.
Airport
Schiphol Airport, only 12 km from the centre of Amsterdam, is the national airport of the Netherlands. Its proximity has become a liability, since it blocks development on the western side of Amsterdam, but it is considered an essential part of the regional economy - it employs 62 000 people. Plans for a second national airport have been abandoned, and a replacement airport in the North Sea is still no more than a proposal. There has been some shift by low-cost carriers and charter traffic, to small regional airports. However, for the medium-term future, further growth of Schiphol is still the planning assumption.
The airport is still government-owned: (75% by national government and 22% by Amsterdam). In 2007 it handled 48 million passenger movements, making it the fifth airport in Europe, with flights to 267 destinations. It handled 1.6 million tons of freight, the third rank in Europe. [219] Due to the economic crisis, the airport expects a fall in passenger traffic of 6% to 10% over 2009, and up to 15% less freight. [220] The airport is located in a large 19th-century polder, which was almost entirely agricultural until the 1950's. Development pressure, especially the growth of business and logistics parks, has transformed the area. The airport's medium-term strategy assumes 65 million passengers by 2015, but expects to accommodate all new facilities within the existing airport zone. [221]
Rail and public transport
Since the opening of Centraal Station in 1889, all rail lines into Amsterdam are linked. Clockwise, there are now radial lines to:
- Weesp, Almere, Lelystad
- Weesp, Hilversum, Amersfoort, then splits for northern and eastern Netherlands
- Utrecht, then splits for Rhine valley line, and southern Netherlands
- Schiphol Airport, Leiden, The Hague, Rotterdam
- Haarlem, then splits, for Leiden and Zandvoort lines
- Zaandam, then splits, for Alkmaar and Enkhuizen lines
In the south of Amsterdam, the relatively new Station Zuid (1978) is also linked to the Weesp, Utrecht and and Schiphol lines. The line to Utrecht, and the line from from Zuid to Schiphol, are four-track. There is one high-speed rail line in the region, the HSL-Zuid to Paris (opening 2009): it starts south of the airport. There are around 40 stations in the Metropolitan Region: Amsterdam Centraal is the largest, with 11 platform tracks, handling 62 000 passengers a day. The station area is also the centre of the bus and tram networks, and in total 250 000 passengers use it every day. [222] Other large stations are at Schiphol Airport, and Amsterdam Bijlmer ArenA. Proposals for a 'regional rail network' are under consideration: in fact it consists of intensive services on existing lines. There are no concrete plans for new lines: the most probable future options are extra tracks to Schiphol, and a line across the IJmeer lake to Almere. All passenger rail services in the region are operated by Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS), the semi-privatised former national railway. The infrastructure is maintained by ProRail, a 100% state-owned company. [223]
Siemens Combino tram - the standard type in Amsterdam - on line 17. Image by Busfoto.nl
Apart from the railways, public transport in Amsterdam municipality is provided by the semi-privatised municipal transport company, GVB. It serves a total of 1 900 stops/stations with: [224]
- 16 tram lines on a total of 213 km track length. The tram network consists largely of on-street lines: only the newest line (line 26, to IJburg) is of light-rail quality. Tram speeds are consequently low, especially in the centre. Off-peak frequencies are also low.
- 6 ferry routes across the IJ
- 43 bus lines, including some peak-hour services
- the Amsterdam metro with a total track length of 81 km. The system consists of the original line from Centraal Station south-east to Gein (Line 54), a branch from this line to Gaasperplas (Line 53), a ring line parallel to the southern and western sections of the ring motorway, and a light-rail line to Amstelveen (branching from the ring line at Station Zuid). Amstelveen line trains terminate at Centraal Station (Line 51), and ring line trains run through to Gein (Line 50).
Transport in the metropolitan region is by rail and bus. In conformity with EU liberalisation policies, the Netherlands is in transition to a system of regional transit authorities, contracting all services. Bus services in the Waterland region, immediately north of Amsterdam, are provided by Arriva. [226] Most others are provided by Connexxion, which originated by mergers of local bus companies. [227] Both operate lines into Amsterdam, especially to Centraal Station. Connexxion also operates a hydrofoil service Amsterdam-Velsen, along the North Sea Canal, [228] and the local ferries across that canal.
Roads and road transport
Due to the landscape of marshes, rivers, and lakes, Amsterdam did not develop a clear pattern of radial roads until the 20th century. Motorways are centred on Amsterdam: four starting from, or just inside, the ring Motorway A10:
- A1: Amersfoort, eastern Netherlands
- A2: Utrecht, southern Netherlands
- A4: Schiphol Airport, The Hague
- A8: incomplete, toward Alkmaar
Four others begin just outside the urban area:
- A5: short bypass of Schiphol airport
- A7: Groningen via Friesland, diverges from A8 at Zaandam
- A6: Friesland via Flevoland, diverges from A1 at Muiderberg
- A9: tangential, from A2 to Alkmaar, via Amstelveen
Amsterdam (municipality) has 287 cars per 1000 inhabitants, much lower than the national average of 434. [168] That is offset by high motorisation rates, in high-income municipalities in the metropolitan region. Car ownership in the boroughs seems related to the available road network parking space, rather than income: from 26% of adults in 19th-century Westerpark, to 45% in 1950's Osdorp, with its very wide streets and open layout. [229] However, 65% of adults have a driving licence, and 49% have access to a car. [230] Car ownership is rising fast in all boroughs. [231]
Cycling
72% of the inhabitants over 12 years old own a bicycle (municipality, 2006). [232] Within Amsterdam, the share of cycling in the modal split is high, 37% in 2004. However, cycling is declining among teenagers, and is lower among ethnic minorities. There is a shortage of cycle parking, especially around stations. New cycle parks are planned at strategic locations, including a total of 10 000 places at Centraal Station. [233] Bicycle theft is very common, and difficult to eradicate: the large number of thefts creates a market for stolen bikes as replacements. Since stolen bikes are very cheap, there is little incentive to maintain them, and they are often simply abandoned. To deal with the many abandoned and illegally parked bikes, the city established the Amsterdam Bicycle Disposal Centre AFAC (photo) which handles 2 000 bikes a month. [234] Those unreclaimed after three months are sold or scrapped.
Amsterdam (municipality) has a designated network of main cycle routes - on fully segregated cycle paths, on cycle lanes, and on streets shared with other traffic. (In general, historic city centres have less road space for separate cycle lanes). For longer journeys, including the major regional commuting flows into and around Amsterdam, cycling is not usually an option. Nationally, 39% of train passengers use a bicycle to get to the station, [235] but the train itself is not used by most commuters.
Electricity
In the metropolitan region there are five power generation locations, with about one-fifth of all installed power in the Netherlands: [236]
Almere Natural gas, heat/power 118 MW Electrabel
Velsen/IJmond cluster Coking gas/natural gas 1004 MW NUON
Hemweg, port zone Natural gas 599 MW NUON
Hemweg, port zone Coal 630 MW NUON
Diemen Natural gas, heat/power 249 MW NUON
Purmerend Natural gas 69 MW NUON
Two double 380 KV lines from Diemen [237] connect to the national grid, run by the distribution authority Tennet. [238] Another 380 kV line from the Velsen cluster to Rotterdam is planned. A 120MW wind energy park Windpark Q7 [239] is under construction 23 km offshore from IJmuiden. Power is distributed by NUON, [240] which originated as the privatised Provincial Electricity Company of North-Holland. It also absorbed the former municipal gas and electricity company in Amsterdam.
Gas
The main domestic and industrial fuel in the Netherlands is natural gas, most of it from fields in the north-east of the country. The high-pressure gas transmission network radiates from these fields, and Amsterdam is an end user region, with no import terminals or connections. [241] Gas is also distributed by NUON.
Water
Management of surface water, in the low-lying western Netherlands, was well organised by the Middle Ages. Water councils (waterschap) and higher councils (Hoogheemraadschap) formed a parallel system of mono-functional local government. It still survives, although the smaller councils have been merged to regional boards, which correspond to drainage areas. The Waterschap Amstel, Gooi and Vecht (AGV) [242] covers most of Amsterdam municipality and the Stadsregio, but not the area north of the IJ. [243]
The waterschappen (plural) did not, however, supply drinking water to the towns. Until the 19th century, wells and rainwater cisterns were used. Some water was brought to Amsterdam by boat, from the river Vecht above Weesp, which was relatively unpolluted. It was sold per bucket: up to 4 000 were employed in this water trade. [244] The nearest sources of clean water are the groundwater flows, from the dunes (near Haarlem) and the Gooi ridge. Both were exploited only in the 19th century: the first privately piped water from the dunes arrived in 1853, and within ten years it displaced the Vecht water trade. [245] [246] The private suppliers were later replaced by a municipal water company. It recently merged with the Waterschap AGV, to form a single water organisation, Waternet. Dune water is still supplied, although dune rainfall is supplemented by Rhine water (pumped from south of Utrecht). The dunes are, in effect, used as a filter. The other source is ground water from the Bethune Polder , fed by rainfall on the nearby Gooi ridge: it is mixed with Rhine water, taken from the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal. [247] North of the IJ, drinking water is provided by PWN, the former Provincial Water Company. It too supplies dune water, supplemented by Rhine water, and also surface water from the IJsselmeer lake (purified at Andijk). [248]
Sewage and waste
Waternet also manages the sewage system in the municipality of Amsterdam, but the area does not correspond to its supply zone for drinking water (see map). Since 2006, all sewage (200 000 m3 per day) is processed at a new plant in the western port zone. [249] Most solid waste from the municipality Amsterdam, and several surrounding municipalities, is burnt as fuel at a combined heat and power plant in the western port zone, operated by a municipally owned company, AEB. The plant burns 900 000 tons of waste annually, including sludge from the adjoining sewage works. It also supplies warm water for heating to western Amsterdam. A new unit will raise capacity to 1.4 million tons. [250] [251] Amsterdam has burnt waste since 1919, after early opposition to landfill in the Naardermeer (Naarden Lake). Other municipalities in the region still dump waste. Since there are no mines or quarries, the dumps are above ground level, and disfigure the local landscape. The provincially-owned landfill company Afvalzorg manages 8 active and former landfill sites, in the metropolitan region. [252]
Education
Schools in the Netherlands are formally segregated by religion, and de facto by social class and ethnic origin. There are four main classes of primary and secondary school:
- religious schools. They are legally entitled to discriminate on grounds of religion, but most Christian schools now admit Muslims.
- public schools with a specific pedagogical orientation, such as Montessori or Anthroposophy. In practice, they serve the upper-middle class.
- ordinary public schools (secular): they vary widely in quality, depending on where they are located
- special schools, for children with disabilities.
Schools are commonly referred to as 'black' (immigrant majority, including white immigrants) or 'white' (ethnic Dutch majority). These labels have now passed into official use.
Primary
In the school year 2006-2007 there were 209 primary schools in the Amsterdam municipality (95 of them secular public schools), and 18 special schools. [253] 56% of the children at primary schools are non-western allochtones (Surinamese, Turkish, Moroccan), 10% are western immigrants, and only 34% are ethnic Dutch. Recent research [254] shows segregation in primary schools is more pronounced, than the underlying residential segregation, and it is increasing. Most segregated are two (mainly Moroccan) Islamic schools. 96 primary schools are black, 31 are white, and 76 are mixed (representative for the local population). Disadvantaged children are concentrated in the black schools. The research also looked at the mechanisms of segregation. White parents bring their children disproportionately to white schools, outside the neighbourhood: allochtones are more likely to pick the nearest school. The Montessori schools are specifically attractive for this kind of white flight.
Secondary
Entrance to secondary schools in the Netherlands is selective: the primary schools 'advise' the type of secondary school for each child. There are three main types
- VWO school: diploma admits to university
- HAVO school: diploma admits to higher professional education
- VMBO school: the dead end of the Dutch educational system. In theory it prepares students for intermediate vocational education, MBO. (There are no lower vocational schools, they were abolished). A VMBO school does award diplomas, but since the government officially states that they are not a 'minimum qualification for the labour market', they are worthless.
There are 31 secondary schools in Amsterdam, and three organisations (ROC's) for vocational training. Each ROC is legally one 'school', but they have up to 25 000 students, and many separate separate school buildings. Only 33% of those at secondary school in Amsterdam, are ethnic Dutch. [255] The segregation in primary schools is reinforced at secondary level: 60% of ethnic Dutch children go to VWO and HAVO schools, but only 30% of non-western allochtones. [256] White flight reinforces this, as ethnic Dutch parents send their children to older (prestigious) schools in the city centre. That leaves VWO schools in immigrant areas without an enrolment base, in turn reducing the range of schools available. [257] Drop-out rates are also high for a western country: 16% of those between 17 and 22, have no minimum qualification, and are no longer at school. [256] Here too, ethnic origin is a crucial factor: allochtones are over-represented among the unqualified. The Islamic College in Amsterdam, which is primarily a VMBO school, was rated the worst in the country for 2009. [258] (In 2006 the Education Ministry considered closing it entirely). [259] At the other end, the only Jewish secondary school, Maimonides, has the highest exam scores in the country. [260] Muslim parents cannot send their children there, because it does not admit Muslims. (The Islamic College does not admit Jews either, but they lose nothing from that exclusion).
These religious and ethnic divisions help explain the cyclic structural inequality in Amsterdam. Statistically, a Moroccan child grows up in cheap housing in a Moroccan district, and goes to bad schools in the neighbourhood. Those schools refer most of their pupils to VMBO schools, where many drop out. Those who do succeed, can only go to vocational training at MBO schools, where the drop-out rate is also high. Those who do get an MBO-diploma, can only get a low-paid job, so they can probably not pay for additional education. Statistically, they will end up living in cheap housing, surrounded by other allochtones, and sending their children to the bad local schools - and so the cycle starts again.
Tertiary
There are two universities in Amsterdam, two main institutes of higher professional education (Hogeschool), and two art colleges.
- Universiteit van Amsterdam. UvA. Secular, 27 000 students.
- Vrije Universiteit VU. Orthodox-Protetstant, 19 000 students.
- Hogeschool van Amsterdam 35 000 students.
- Hogeschool INHOLLAND 32 000 students, but not all in the Amsterdam region.
- Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten The main art/creative college, 3 000 students.
- Gerrit Rietveld Academie 950 students.
In Amsterdam (municipality) there were a total of 36 617 students in higher professional education in 2006, and 42 766 at the two universities. [261] [262] That corresponds to 11% of the population, but the students don't all live in Amsterdam, and some inhabitants attend higher education elsewhere - so the 11% share is indicative only.
Both universities remained 'white', for decades after mass immigration transformed the regional population. In recent years, the proportion of allochtone students has approached their share of the student age group. However, the exclusion of first-generation migrants in the preceding decades, left a huge gap in educational levels, which Dutch universities have never attempted to correct. Integration among students within universities has also failed. The traditional student fraternities (dating from the 19th-century) remain almost exclusively 'white' (ethnic Dutch), and new student associations were founded on an ethnic basis (Turkish, Moroccan, Antillian). Both universities have also resisted pressure for equal treatment of women - which they see as a politically correct absurdity, and as a threat to academic freedom. 90% of VU professors, and 87% of UvA professors, are men. [263]
Media, culture, and sport
The Nieuwezijds Voorburgwal in Amsterdam was once the 'Fleet Street' of the Netherlands, the base of most national newspapers. All have now moved to suburban locations, and mergers have left two main newspaper publishers in Amsterdam. The Telegraaf Media Group publishes the country's largest-circulation newspaper De Telegraaf, several regional papers, and Spits (a free newspaper for commuters). De Telegraaf is right-wing, chauvinistic, xenophobic, and populist: it was banned for several years after the Second World War, for its collaboration with the German occupation. The PCM group publishes the left-of-centre Volkskrant (originally a Catholic paper) and the still Protestant-oriented Trouw. The only remaining local newspaper is Het Parool, an evening tabloid. Traditionally associated with the right wing of the Labour Party, it almost disappeared due to declining circulation, and was sold off by PCM, to the Belgian Persgroep (Press Group) [264] In March 2009, the Persgroep acquired the rest of PCM for € 100 million. [265]
There are two subsidised local TV/radio stations, with limited programming. AT5 was largely funded by the municipality, and RTV-Noord-Holland by the Province of North-Holland. Since AT5 also covers regional news, their (subsidised) activities often overlap, but so far both have resisted pressure to merge.
Culture
Amsterdam is the national cultural centre, with a share of theatres, concert halls, and museums, beyond its share of national population. Much of their audience therefore comes from outside Amsterdam, and the most prestigious attract an international public.
The municipal participation survey (Cultuurmonitor 2006) indicates, that two-thirds of all residents visit a theatre or concert at least once a year. (The survey admits, that selective non-response may lead to overestimation of participation). [266] More than half report visiting a museum. However, there are sharp ethnic differences: 70% of ethnic Dutch under-18s visited a museum, as against 17% of adult Moroccan residents. 12% of adults reported buying a work of art in the previous year, mainly well-educated autochtones.
Cinemas continue to attract under-18s (90% reported going to the cinema) - but DVD rentals and downloads eroded cinema visits by over-18s (down to 50%). About 60% of under-18s had visited Pathé De Munt, the only large multiplex in the city centre. 27% of under-18s, and almost half the young adults (18-35), had visited clubs and/or dance events. All ethnic groups are represented there, but some clubs attract specific ethnic groups. The most popular venues are Paradiso and Melkweg, both with widely varied programming. The survey also notes the existence and importance, of a fully segregated event and festival culture, among immigrant minorities.
Sport
Amsterdam (municipality) has a wide range of sports facilities: tennis courts are the most common (321), followed by football fields (165). There were 14 swimming pools in 2007, eight of them outdoor pools. [267] Two-thirds of residents report participation in sport, at least once a month. [268] The most popular are: fitness, football, swimming and jogging. [269] Here too, there are substantial ethnic differences: sport activity is twice as high among ethnic Dutch, as among Turks. [270]
Amsterdam cycle routes
These cycle routes illustrate aspects of geography, urban structure, and society in Amsterdam, as covered above. They are listed in order of length - from about 3 hours to about 6 hours. If you have only a limited time, then Route 5 is the most diverse cross-section of the urban-regional landscape.
- Cycle Route 6: a cross-section through western Amsterdam, in roughly chronological order, from the 17th-century to the 20th-century areas.
- Cycle Route 5: takes a historic route eastwards out of the city, and across the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal to the 'heritage town' Weesp, returning through the failed housing projects, and the new retail/entertainment zone, of south-east Amsterdam.
- Cycle route 7: passes the west port basins, crosses the North Sea Canal by ferry, through the polder village of Westzaan, to a heritage windmill park on the Zaan river, and returns along the still-industrial Zaan riverside.
- Cycle Route 2: follows the mediaeval coastline and sea dike of the IJ estuary, through the mediaeval settlements of Spaarnwoude and Spaarndam. The reclaimed estuary is now threatened by suburban expansion from the Haarlem side, and port expansion in Amsterdam.
- Cycle Route 8: crosses by ferry to the IJ docklands, follows a linear settlement which extends north of Amsterdam, goes through the new suburbs and the historic core of Purmerend, then a reclaimed lake-bed polder, returning along a 19th-century ship canal.
- Cycle Route 10: exits the city via Amstelveen, the most linear of the post-war extensions, into the still-rural 'Green Heart', and returns along the river Amstel, in its rural setting and in the city.
- Cycle Route 4: through gentrified docklands and interwar housing, along the Amsterdam-Rhine canal and heritage villages, returning through Amsterdam's newest suburb, IJburg.
- Cycle Route 9: along relict dike settlements, and interwar garden-city housing, and through the reclaimed marshes to the heritage-tourism island of Marken, returning along the mediaeval sea dike.
- Cycle Route 3: through Haarlem, to the narrow strip of land just behind the dunes, with the oldest continuous habitation. The dunes are suburbanised since the 19th century, and cut through by the sea lock complex at IJmuiden on the North Sea Canal.
Finally, there is a much longer all-day cycle route from Amsterdam to Zyfflich - the nearest village in Germany. It passes through historic towns and cities, and crosses several main landscape types of the Netherlands, such as the reclaimed peat bogs in the west, the glacial ridges, and the Rhine flood plains.
References
- See the section on definition and population.
- GvA-3, 44; GvA-4, 15.
- Map, page 29, ESPON ATLAS: Mapping the structure of the European territory (Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung, Bonn. 2006)
- Eurostat: 2006 Regional GDP per inhabitant in the EU27
- http://www.digital-h
ydraulics.com/damcit y/damsteden.htm - Monthly population totals
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/5400/ - O+S: Kerncijfers Stadsregio
- Metropoolregio Amsterdam in Beeld 2007
- Metropoolregio Amsterdam: Ontwikkelingsbeeld Noordvleugel 2040
- Vereniging Deltametropool
- City Hall, coordinates from Google Earth.
- http://www.oer-ij.nl
/ - GvA-1, 34.
- Het Groene Hart: Een Hollandse cultuurlandschap. 1997. Utrecht: Matrijs Guus Borger et al.
- Het Nederlandse landschap: een historisch-geografis
che benadering. 1986. Utrecht: Matrijs S. Barends et al., red - Leefbaar laagland: geschiedenis van de waterbeheersing en landaanwinning in Nederland. 1993. Utrecht: Matrijs G. P. van der Ven, red.
- Jonge landschappen 1800-1940: het recente verleden in de aanbieding. 1994. Utrecht: Matrijs Werkgroep Symposium Cluverius.
- http://www.tgooi.inf
o/ - http://www.verkeeren
waterstaat.nl/onderw erpen/water/water_en _toekomst/advies_del tacommissie/index.as px - http://www.knmi.nl/k
limatologie/normalen 1971-2000/per_statio n/stn240/4-normalen/ 240_schiphol.pdf - KNMI: Toestand van het klimaat in Nederland
- http://www.knmi.nl/V
inkCMS/news_detail.j sp?id=42910 - G. Lenderink, E. van Meijgaard and F. Selten. Intense coastal rainfall in the Netherlands in response to high sea surface temperatures: analysis of the event of August 2006 from the perspective of a changing climate. 2008 preprint for Climate Dynamics, online at
http://www.knmi.nl/V
inkCMS/news_detail.j sp?id=43099 - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7149/ - http://www.bma.amste
rdam.nl/?ActItmIdt=1 22633 - http://www.rtl.nl/(/
actueel/rtlnieuws/)/ components/actueel/r tlnieuws/2007/05_mei /14/binnenland/0514_ 1800_verkeersmaatreg elen.xml - VROM: Structuurvisie Randstad 2040
- GvA 1, 93.
- Jan Lucassen, 2002. Immigranten in Holland 1600-1800.
- http://www.amsterdam
historie.nl/buurten/ - http://www.knaw.nl/p
ublicaties/pdf/20061 061.pd - GvA-4, 119.
- Jaarboek Amsterdam 2007, bevolking
- GvA-3, 19, 243.
- O+S Factsheet 2006/7, page 6.
- http://www.planburea
uvoordeleefomgeving. nl/persbericht200807 08.html - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6227/ - O+S Factsheet 7, 2006.
- http://www.noord-hol
land.nl/Images/65_10 8358.pdf - Almere 2030
- Central Statistcal Bureau definition.
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/10944/ - Elsevier: 'Immigranten toelaten grootste vergissing ooit', 26 March 2008.
- Overgebleven dorpsleven: Sociaal kapitaal op het hedendaagse platteland; p. 73. Den Haag, December 2008: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau.
- Speech of Integration Minister Eberhard van der Laan, 22 January 2009.
- De homo-glamour is voorbij, Trouw.
- Interview Frank van Dalen. Het Parool, 04 August 2007.
- Nicis Institute, 2008. Na de sloop: waterbedeffecten van gebiedsgericht stedelijk beleid
- Factsheet 2006/7, page 4
- Map 3 in: Niek van Leeuwen, Willem Regeer. Bevolkingskernen 2001–2006: groei van dorpen, steden en agglomeraties. CBS, 2008.
- Het Parool: IJburg vreest 'witte vlucht'. 7 March 2009.
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/5400/ - Armoedemonitor 2008, Map 1.5.2.
- CBS, incomes per municipality.
- Armoedemonitor 2008, 6; Tabel 1.4.1.
- Armoedemonitor 2008, Tabel 1.8.6.
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/grafiek/8587/ - http://www.sp.nl/ser
vice/rapport/rapport -reintegratie-def.pd f - http://amsterdam.sp.
nl/nieuws/berichten. php?itemid=1326 - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6797/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6801/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/pdf/2007_staa t_stad_h03.pdf - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/11511/ - http://www.elsevier.
nl/web/10196744/Nieu ws/Politiek/Vogelaar -moet-ranglijst-prac htwijken-bekendmaken .htm?rss=true - Het Parool: Kolenkit slechtste buurt van het land (2-02-2009)
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/themas/bevolk ingenwonen/70119/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/10250/ - Main source is the four-part, 5-volume city history Geschiedenis van Amsterdam, edited by Marijke Carasso-Kok. Abbreviated GvA-1, GvA-2a, GvA-2b, GvA-3, GvA-4.
- Geschiedenis van Amsterdam I. Een stad uit het niets: tot 1578. M. Carasso-Kok, 2004. Amsterdam: SUN. ISBN: 9058751813
- Geschiedenis van Amsterdam II-1 Centrum van de wereld, 1578-1650 Willem Frijhoff, 2004. Amsterdam: SUN. ISBN: 9058751376
- Geschiedenis van Amsterdam II-2 Zelfbewuste stadstaat, 1650-1813 Willem Frijhoff, 2005. Amsterdam: SUN. ISBN: 905875138
- Geschiedenis van Amsterdam III. Hoofdstad in aanbouw 1813-1900 Piet de Rooij, 2006 Amsterdam: SUN. ISBN: 9058751392
- Geschiedenis van Amsterdam IV. Tweestrijd om de hoofdstad 1900-2000. Piet de Rooij, 2007 Amsterdam: SUN. ISBN: 978905875140
- GvA-1, 25.
- GvA-1, 32.
- GvA-1: 59 and 48.
- GvA-1. 60 and 115.
- GvA-1, 110.
- GvA-1, 116.
- GvA-1, 117-118,
- GvA-1, 121.
- GvA-2a, 110-111.
- GvA-1, 134-138; 147.
- GvA-1, 139.
- GvA-1, 143; 148; 150-151.
- GvA-1, 109.
- GvA-1, 148.
- GvA-1, 271-293.
- GvA-1, 263-266.
The Miracle of Amsterdam - GvA-1, 395.
- GvA-1, 309; 321-325.
- GvA-1, 328-329; 342-349.
- Lucassen, 7.
- GvA-1, 452-456.
- GvA-1, 459-461.
- GvA-1, 463.
- GvA-1, 464-466.
- GvA-1, 467; 469; 474-475.
- GvA-1, 453; 479.
- GvA-1, 481.
- https://stadsarchief
.amsterdam.nl/archie ven/archiefbank/over zicht/740.nl.html - GvA-2a, 290.
- GvA-2a, 404.
- GvA-2a, 417.
- Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre vom 15. September 1935
- GvA-3, 277; GvA-2a, 255.
- GvA-2a, 401.
- GvA-2a, 405; 421.
- GvA-2a, 118.
- GvA-2a, 134-135.
- GvA-2a, 145; 284.
- Lucassen, 25; Gva-2b, 9; GvA-2b, 21; GvA-2a, 42.
- GvA-2a, 17-47.
- GvA-2a, 28-29.
- http://www.minbuza.n
l/history/en/oorlog - Boxer, C. R., 1965. The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600-1800. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965.
- GvA 2-b, 55.
- GvA 2-b, 61.
- GvA 2-b, 24-27.
- GvA-2b, 86.
- GvA-2a, 154-159.
- GvA-2b, 238; 244-255.
- GvA-2b, 28, 225.
- GvA-2b, 148-149.
- GvA-2b, 258-259.
- GvA-2, 262; 291.
- GvA-2b, 307.
- GvA-2b, 369-370.
- GvA-2b, 433-445.
- GvA-2b, 472-475.
- GvA-2b, 460.
- GvA-2b, 446-447.
- GvA-2b, 484-488.
- GvA-3, 40.
- GvA-3, 307-310.
- GvA-2b, 499.
- GvA-3, 50-56.
- GvA-3, 302.
- GvA-3, 318-320.
- GvA-3, 352-355; 375-377.
- GvA-4, 41.
- GvA-3, 448-450.
- GvA-3, 24.
- GvA-3, 238-248.
- GvA-4, 61-62.
- GvA-3, 412-413; 471.
- GvA-4, 60.
- GvA-4, 67.
- GvA-4, 44-48.
- GvA-4, 85-86.
- GvA-4, 90-92; 13.
- GvA-4, 70; 119; 150-151; 174-190.
- GvA-4, 210-216.
- GvA-4, 229-230.
- GvA-4, 14; 246-247; 26-266; 274; 279.
- GvA-4, 307.
- GvA-4, 305-309.
- GvA-4, 312.
- GvA-4, 337-338.
- GvA-4, 341-346.
- GvA-4, 356-71; 273.
- GvA-4, 424-435.
- GvA-4, 14-15; 391-393.
- GvA-4, 459; 470-483.
- CBS: Structure of Dutch GDP in 2006
- NRC: Nederlandse economie krimpt 3,5 procent (17 Feb 2009)
- CBS: Gemeente op maat, Amsterdam. Table 4.1
- OS Amsterdam Factsheet 2, 2008
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6501/ - OS Amsterdam Factsheet 8, 2007
- GFCI, Zyen
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7382/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7377/ - http://www.steel90.c
om/ - http://corus.nl/Orga
nisatie/Corus%20in%2 0IJmuiden - Map 1.1, in Monitor kantoren- en bedrijvenlocaties provincie Noord-Holland, http://www.noord-hol
land.nl/Images/65_12 1236.pdf - http://www.noord-hol
land.nl/Images/65_12 1235.pdf - http://www.volkskran
t.nl/binnenland/arti cle412532.ece/Cramer _bindt_strijd_aan_te gen_witte_schimmel_v an_bedrijven - http://www.iamsterda
m.com/doing_business /amsterdam_area/aals meer - http://www.nov-orchi
dee.nl/html/42007.ht ml - OS Amsterdam Factsheet 6, 2007
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7301/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7309/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7322/ - http://www.zandvoort
.nl/website/webgen.n sf/pages/_C0DCA85FE3 771E94C12572FB004545 20/$file/Zandvoort%2 0in%20economische%20 en%20toeristische%20 cijfers%202004.pdf - ATCB prognosis, reported in Trouw
- Table 11.2.3, Amsterdam in cijfers, Hoofdstuk 11
- NRC: De Wallen
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/9525/ - Strategienota 1012
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/nieuws/10340 - O+S, Factsheet 2, 2005
- Gemeente Amsterdam: Ruim 40 coffeeshops weg na invoering afstandscriterium tot scholen
- O+S, Factsheet 3, 2007
- Gezamenlijk persbericht van de gemeente Amsterdam en stadsdeel Centrum
- Amsterdam: College
- Amsterdam: Raadsfracties
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/pdf/2009_euro peesparlement_defini tieve_uitslag
Official results, Amsterdam municipality - NRC report with map of PVV scores, 6 June 2009
- http://amsterdam.nl/
?ActItmIdt=130586 - Map of seven new boroughs
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/11025/ - Regioraad
- http://www.politie-a
msterdam-amstelland. nl/get.cfm?id=14& - http://www.politie.n
l/Zaanstreek-Waterla nd/OverDitKorps/Werk gebied/ - Volkskrant: Ministers willen drie korpsen opheffen
- http://www.kmar.nl/o
ver_de_kmar/taak_en_ organisatie/inleidin g/index.html - http://www.brandweer
.nl/amsterdam-amstel land/organisatie/ - http://www.rbzw.nl/O
rganisatie_3.html - GvA 2-b, 15.
- http://www.portofams
terdam.com/smartsite 363.dws - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7256/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7261/ - http://www.ptamsterd
am.nl/site/nieuws.ph p?nieuwsID=98 - http://www.ptamsterd
am.nl/site/cruises.p hp - Rijkswaterstat: Kerncijfers Scheepvaart Uitgave 2007
- Table 3.3 in Rijkswaterstat: Kerncijfers Scheepvaart Uitgave 2007.
- http://www.schipholg
roup.com/Onderneming /Informatie/FeitenCi jfers/FeitenEnCijfer s/FeitenEnCijfers.ht m - Het Parool: Zware klappen voor Schiphol (Feb 2009)
- http://www.schiphol.
nl/Omgeving/HeldereK ijkOpSchiphol/Ruimte lijkOntwikkelingspla nTot2015/RuimtelijkO ntwikkelingsplanTot2 015.htm - http://www.stationse
iland.amsterdam.nl/ - http://www.prorail.n
l/Over%20ProRail/Pag es/Historie.aspx - http://www.gvb.nl/ov
ergvb/feiten-en-cijf ers/Pages/vervoer-in -cijfers.aspx - Het Parool: Nieuw debacle bij Noord-Zuidlijn (19 Feb 2009)
- http://www.arriva.nl
/page.php?id=1927 - http://www.connexxio
n.com/web/show/id=54 893 - http://www.reiziger.
connexxion.nl/web/sh ow/id=66901/contenti d=24221 - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6973/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6977/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/grafiek/8687/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6977/ - http://www.amsterdam
.nl/aspx/download.as px?file=/contents/pa ges/101667/mjp_fiets 2007-2010gemeenteraa d10102007.pdf - http://www.afac.amst
erdam.nl/1.html - http://www.fietsbera
ad.nl/library/reposi tory/bestanden/publi catie%2012%20voor-%2 0en%20natransport%20 trein.pdf - http://www.energie.n
l/ - TenneT Network map
- http://www.tennet.or
g/english/tennet/ind ex.aspx - http://www.q7wind.nl
/nl/windpark.htm - http://www.nuon.com/
index.jsp - Gas Transport Services. Transport Insight, 2008.
- http://www.agv.nl/al
gemene_onderdelen/en glish - Map AGV area.
- GvA-3, 223-224.
- http://www.bronnenui
tamsterdam.nl/weerga ve.asp?ID=69 - GvA-3, 225-226.
- http://www.waternet.
nl/over_de_watercycl us/drinkwater - https://www.pwn.nl/P
uurPWN/OverPWN/Organ isatie/Pages/Geschie denis.aspx - http://westpoort04.a
sp4all.nl/pdf/Westpo ort%204.pdf - http://www.afvalener
giebedrijf.nl/main.a sp?wpl_id=55224 - http://www.afvalener
giebedrijf.nl/main.a sp?wpl_id=55223 - http://www.afvalzorg
.nl/Landschapsinrich ting.aspx - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6860/ - Dienst Onderzoek en Statistiek, 2008. Segregatie in het Amsterdamse basisonderwijs.
http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/pdf/2008_segr egatie_basisonderwij s.pdf - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/6920/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/themas/onderw ijswelzijnenzorg/ond erwijs/inleiding/702 09 - Het Parool: Ouders ontvluchten zwarte lycea
- Het Parool: Islamitisch College in Amsterdam slechtste school
- http://www.nrc.nl/bi
nnenland/article1750 451.ece/Islamitisch_ College_geteisterd_d oor_twist - http://www.nik.nl/de
fault.asp?oUrl=conte nt_detail.asp?fld_pk _algListId=1082 - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/3193/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/3187/ - Stichting de Beauvoir. Monitor Vrouwelijke Hoogleraren 2006.
- http://www.persgroep
.be/ - NRC: PCM Uitgevers naar Vlaamse Persgroep
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/pdf/2006_cult uurmonitor.pdf - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/7227/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/themas/cultuu rsportenrecreatie/sp ortenrecreatie/inlei ding/70612 - Amsterdam in cijfers, Hoofdstuk 11
- http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/grafiek/8763/ - Persbericht Stadsregio, 12/2008
- http://www.arriva.nl
/page.php?id=2171 - GvA-1, 469.
- http://www.cbs.nl/NR
/rdonlyres/81DE2957- 43E3-45D2-999D-61568 D4EE0BE/0/2006p19pub .pdf - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/tabel/5400/ - http://www.os.amster
dam.nl/themas/onderw ijswelzijnenzorg/ond erwijs/inleiding/702 09
Grigory Klimenko
Invite as author
good!
Antonio Centeno
Invite as author
Very thorough!
Ahmed
Invite as author
Good Job !